The phenomenon of the female homicides in Ciudad Juárez,
called in Spanish feminicidio ("feminicide") involves the violent
deaths of hundreds of women and girls since 1993 in the northern Mexican region
of Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, a border city across the Rio Grande from the U.S.
city of El Paso, Texas. As of February 27, 2005, the number of murdered women
in Ciudad Juárez since 1993 is estimated to be more than 370.
After surveying 155 killings out of 340 documented between
1993 and 2003, a government committee found that roughly half were prompted by
motives like robbery and gang wars, while a little more than a third involved
sexual assault.
The murders of women and girls in Ciudad Juárez since 1993
have received international attention, primarily due to perceived government
inaction in preventing violence against women and girls and bringing
perpetrators to justice.
Nature of female
homicides
Evidence suggests that a specific group of women and girls
are being targeted in Ciudad Juárez. The
victims share common characteristics, and there are many similarities in the
violent crimes committed against them. Most of the victims are young women who come
from impoverished backgrounds and work in maquiladoras, as factory workers, in
other sectors of the informal economy or are students. In addition, many victims share common
physical attributes, including dark skin, slender physique, and dark, shoulder-length
hair. In terms of the crimes,
similarities across cases include the rape, torture, and mutilation of the
victims.
Homicide statistics
There are various media reports with different numbers
ranging from hundreds to thousands of female homicides in the Ciudad Juárez
region. For this reason, Amnesty International reports, "Inadequate official data on the crimes committed in Chihuahua,
particularly accurate figures on the exact number of murders and abductions of
girls and women, has led to disputes around the issues that obscure the quest
for justice."
According to Amnesty International, as of February 2005,
more than 370 young women and girls had been murdered in the cities of Ciudad
Juárez and Chihuahua. More recently,
prosecutors from the state of Chihuahua reported that in 2010, 270 women were
killed within the state, of these murders 247 occurred in Juárez. In 2011, Chihuahua's Attorney General, Carlos
Manuel Salas announced during a briefing in August 2011 that 222 women had
been killed in Chihuahua since January of that year. Of these 222 murders, 130 of them occurred in
Ciudad Juárez. In total, more than 300
women were murdered in the city in 2011.
A study was conducted in 2008 on the Feminicide Database
1993–2007 at the Colegio de la Frontera Norte which documented incidents of
feminicide that occurred in Ciudad Juárez from 1993–2007. Of the various
different kinds of murders that were analyzed, the study found two common
patterns in the data which were classified as intimate feminicide and systemic
sexual feminicide. Intimate feminicide
refers to women who were killed by men that were close to them. According to the study, intimate feminicide
accounted for 30.4% of the murders of women and girls in Juárez from 1993–2007.
Systematic sexual feminicide refers to systematic patterns in the killing of
women and children including kidnapping, sexual violence, torture, and body
abandonment in areas such as desert areas, garbage dumps, and sewage ditches
among others. According to the study,
systemic sexual feminicide accounted for 31.8% of the murders of women in
Juárez from 1993–2007.
Total number of
homicides in Juárez
According to Molly Molloy, a research librarian and
professor at New Mexico State University (also founder and maintainer of
"Frontera List", a long-running mailing list dedicated to information
and discussion about issues in the U.S.-Mexico border), the situation in Juárez
is one of "impunity regardless of gender". She states that "female murder victims have never comprised more than 18 percent
of the overall number of murder victims in Ciudad Juárez, and in the last two
decades that figure averages at less than 10 percent. That’s less than in the
United States, where about 20 to 25 percent of the people who are murdered in a
given year are women".
Other scholars also state that femicide rates in Ciudad
Juárez are lower than in American cities such as Houston and Ensenada, and as a
share of overall homicide rates they are typically lower than in other cities.
Motives
The uncertainty about the characteristics of the
perpetrators, their relationships to the victims, or their motives is primarily
due to the dysfunction of the Mexican justice system as most cases have been
inadequately investigated and documented. While in many of the cases in Ciudad Juárez it
has yet to be determined who exactly has committed the murders, much of the
literature on this issue purports that patriarchal backlash against working
women may be a potential motive for the killings.
It is believed that the femicide in Ciudad Juárez may be
related to organized crime (like prostitution rings) given the presence of the
powerful drug cartels in the region. Further, criminal gangs have become a
permanent threat particularly to women on the border. Gang activity creates
high risk for women especially due to very little institutional protection.
This patriarchal backlash may indeed be the result of lack
of employment opportunities for men and more women entering the workforce which
has altered traditional gender dynamics and created a situation of conflict
between the sexes. Other researchers attribute
the murders to Mexico's structural crisis including increasing poverty,
unemployment, the disintegration of the peasant economy, migration, and a dysfunctional
justice system. Overall, in considering
the potential motives for gendered violence against women, academic Mercedes
Olivera has argued that femicide is a mechanism of domination, control, oppression,
and power over women.
Contributing factors
Organized crime and
drug trafficking
In examining femicide in Ciudad Juárez, it is important to
consider the impact of the drug trade. Juárez is the seat of the Mexican drug
cartel which has resulted in high levels of violence that have been directed at
the Mexican population. It is believed
that the femicide in Ciudad Juárez may be related to the powerful drug cartels
along the border. Further, gangs have become a permanent threat particularly to
women on the border. Gang activity creates high risk for women especially due
to very little institutional protection.
Often, misogyny is a common trait of gang activity. According to a study conducted in 2008 using
the Feminicide Database 1993–2007 at the Colegio de la Frontera Norte, which
documented incidents of feminicide that occurred in Ciudad Juárez from
1993–2007, 9.1% of the murders of women were attributed to organized crime and drug
trafficking activities.
From 2007-2010, the murder rate spiked by around 1000%, from
around 1 reported murder per day, to around 10 murders per day on average.
After the ATF gunwalking scandal where United States federal ATF agents were
exposed for engaging in a scheme to "inadvertently" arm Mexican drug
cartels with firearms in 2010, the rate has gradually declined from the
previous status of the "murder capital of the world".
Maquila industry
Maquiladoras are widely known for their cheap labor and
their exploitative conditions, such as regularly violating basic human rights,
which often target women. Women and
girls often migrate from villages or rural areas in other parts of Mexico in
search of work in the maquilas. According to Livingston, this migration of
women created, "a new phenomenon of mobile, independent and vulnerable
working women," in cities like Ciudad Juárez. Women and girls are often funneled to work in
areas that require lower education, and pay lower wages.
Maquiladoras construct their female workforce under the
notion that female workers are temporary workers, therefore justifying lower
wages and creating a high turnover rate of laborers. According to Monarrez Fragoso, "the practices of the maquiladora
industry towards the workers reveal a consume and dispose cycle." This consume and dispose cycle represents
how the maquila industry creates "disposable" women referencing the
devaluation and expendable nature of their labor.
Many of the murder victims in Ciudad Juárez have been
maquiladora employees. Despite the
expansion of the maquila industry, Juárez still remained a relatively poor and
undeveloped city lacking infrastructure in some parts such as electricity and
paved roads. As a part of their daily
commute, many women maquila workers walk through such areas to and from company
buses creating vulnerability to be victimized. In addition, the increased involvement of
women in the labor force may also be a contributing factor to the victimization
of women and girls because of the competition for economic resources in decades
in which male unemployment has been high.
NAFTA
The implementation of the North American Free Trade
Agreement in 1994 resulted in the expansion of the maquiladora industry and
created new opportunities for employment for women outside of the home and in
the factories. The availability of cheap
labor made it attractive for business owners to open factories in Mexico, and
the availability of cheap employment attracted many, especially women, to
border towns such as Ciudad Juárez. Research has shown correlations between
economic and political issues and violence against women along the border.
Academic Katherine Pantaleo has argued that, "NAFTA, as a capitalist approach, has
directly created a devaluation of women and an increase in gendered
violence." Further, according
to Wright, in the time period between the implementation of NAFTA in 1994 and
2001, "the homicide rate for men
increased by 300 percent, while for women it increased by 600 percent."
Such studies indicate the importance of
exploring the effects of NAFTA when considering the possible causes of the
murder of women and girls in Ciudad Juárez. Consequently, it has been suggested that
amendments be made to NAFTA that include human rights provisions.
Machismo and
Marianismo ideology
Sociocultural factors in relation to traditional gender
roles have impacted violence against women in Mexico.[6] According to Pantaleo,
"Under the view of patriarchy, two expressions are commonly used in Mexico
to show the difference in status of males and females; these expressions are
machismo and marianismo." Machismo
is characterized by male power and aggression; while marianismo is
characterized by subordination and domestic gender roles. As part of the marianismo ideology, women are
expected to fulfill domestic roles as wives and mothers and to refrain from paid
labor outside of the home.
Women who leave their homes to seek employment in the
maquila industry directly challenge the marianismo ideal of womanhood. Olivera suggests that this changed situation
challenges hypermasculinity, in which aggressive aspects of male identity are
exaggerated in order to preserve their identity. According to Livingston, gender-directed
violence in Ciudad Juárez may be a negative reaction as women "gain
greater personal autonomy and independence while men lose ground."
Police and
governmental response
The murder of women in Juárez has attracted global attention
since 1993 given suspected police and government inaction to prevent the
murders and bring perpetrators to justice.
There have been several international rulings against Mexico for its
inadequate response to the increasing violence against women. Police and government officials have been
accused of responding with indifference to the crimes against women as well as
exhibiting tolerance for such crimes, conducting inadequate and negligent
investigations, ineffectively responding to the crimes, and failing to prevent
and protect women from violence.
As a result of international attention, police and
government officials have been politically pressured to respond to the murders.
Consequently, due to political pressure
for justice, police have been accused of rushing to make arrests and solve
cases while the crimes continue to occur. Further, out of hundreds of cases, only three
convictions have ever been made and there is much skepticism involving the integrity
of the convictions.
The methodology and integrity of police investigations has
been questioned due to allegations of torture and human rights violations of
alleged suspects. Amnesty International
reports, "The government [has] failed to take effective measures to
investigate and bring to justice those responsible for the abduction and
killing of three women in Ciudad Juárez... or to combat the ongoing pattern of
violence against women and discrimination in the city.
Convictions
According to Pantaleo, "While
around 400 girls and women have been abducted and murdered; few arrests and
convictions have resulted." For
convictions that have been made, there is a great deal of controversy that
surrounds them. Police have been accused
of conducting rushed investigations with questionable methodology and
integrity. Further, suspects that have
been apprehended have claimed that they were tortured into confessing. This has caused uncertainty of the legitimacy
of both investigations and convictions.
In 1996, an Egyptian national, Omar Sharif Latif or Abdul
Latif Sharif was convicted of 3 murders and sentenced to a 30-year prison term.
After his arrest in 1995, the murders
continued and authorities claimed that Sharif directed members of the "Los
Rebeldes" gang to continue the murders while he was incarcerated. These members were indicted and convicted as a
result of this connection. The gang
members accused of carrying out murders under Sharif's orders claimed they were
tortured while in police custody. According to Monarrez Fragoso, "In the year 2000, it was known that
the body of Elizabeth Castro Garcia, whose murder was attributed to Omar Sharif
Latif, does not belong to her." His conviction is currently under appeal.
In 2001, Victor Garcia Uribe and Gustavo Gonzalez Meza were
apprehended for eight murders. Gustavo
Gonzalez Mesa died suspiciously while in police custody. In 2004, Victor Garcia Uribe, a bus driver,
was convicted of eight murders that took place in 2001. He confessed to these murders but claimed that
he was tortured into confessing by police.
In 2008, 16-year-old Ruby Frayre Escobedo was murdered by
Sergio Barraza Bocanegra who was acquitted at his first trial for lack of
evidence. Following two years of activism, a retrial convicted Bocanegra who
remained on the run. In 2010, Ruby's mother, Marisela Escobedo Ortiz, was
assassinated by a shot to the head at point blank range while demonstrating for
justice in front of the Governor's Palace in Chihuahua.
International justice
There have been several international rulings against Mexico
for its inadequate response to the increasing violence against women. According to Livingston, "In 1998 the National Commission for Human Rights issued a report
charging gross irregularities and general negligence in state investigations,
including the misidentification of corpses, failure to obtain expert tests on
forensic evidence, failure to conduct autopsies or obtain semen analysis...
failure to file written reports, [and] incompetence in keeping records of the rising
tide of women murders."
In 2004, under the Optional Protocol to the Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) conducted
an inquiry into the allegations that hundreds of murders of women and girls had
taken place in the area of Ciudad Juarez since 1993 at the urging of several
NGOs. In order for the inquiry to take
place it was required that there was reliable evidence that showed that Mexico
was in violation of rights established by CEDAW. The Committee analyzed the gender-based crimes
occurring in Ciudad Juárez and found the two common forms were murder and
disappearances. The Committee also analyzed the response of the government and
found that their initial response was indifference and that the government
exhibited tolerance of these crimes for years.
Further, the Committee concluded that the measures
undertaken by the Mexican State in response to gendered violence against women
leading up to the time of their inquiry were, "few and ineffective at all
levels of the State". The Committee
made several recommendations for Mexico to adhere to. Although these
recommendations were not legally binding, they were influential in the public
sphere.
According to Amnesty International, "In [2009], the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled on the
“cotton field” (Campo Algodonero) case that Mexico was guilty of discrimination
and of failing to protect three young women murdered in 2001 in Ciudad Juárez
or to ensure an effective investigation into their abduction and
murder." The Court ordered
Mexico to conduct a new investigation of the murders, create a national
memorial for the victims, pay reparations to the families of the victims, and
to improve measures which prevent and adequately investigate the murder of
women and girls.
Local activism
According to Simmons, "The
murders in Juárez would not have drawn such national and international
attention if it were not for the heroic efforts of the victims' families and
other women." There have been
numerous local and international organizations that have helped draw attention
to the issue of the murder of women in Juárez which has helped to create
pressure for the Mexican government to agree to further its efforts to respond
to violence against women. Further, the
work of political leaders, activists, artists, academics, and journalists
combined have also been instrumental in bringing international attention to the
murder of women in Juárez and the issues that surround them.
In 1999, a group of feminist activists founded Casa Amiga,
Juárez's first rape crisis and sexual assault center. The center works to provide women in Juárez
with a refuge against violence, therapy, legal counsel, and medical attention. Casa Amiga also works to raise public
awareness both locally and internationally regarding the exploitation and
dehumanization of women in Juárez.
In 2002, a social justice movement named Ni Una Mas, which
in Spanish means "not one more," was formed to raise international
awareness to violence against women in Juárez. The movement consists of a variety of domestic
and international organizations and individual activists. Ni Una Mas participants demand that the
Mexican state implement strategies that prevent violence against women
including murder and kidnappings and that the state conduct competent
investigations on crimes already committed.
In addition to Casa Amiga and Ni Una Mas, family support
groups such as Nuestras Hijas de Regreso a Casa A.C., which in Spanish means
"Our Daughters Back Home," have also formed in response to the violence
against women in Juárez. Nuestras Hijas
de Regreso a Casa A.C. has also worked to bring domestic and international
media attention to the violence against women in Juárez.
In popular culture
In television
The American television series The Bridge (2013) used the disappearance of the girls of Juárez as
part of the backdrop to a series of murders.
In film
The documentary Blood
Rising (2013) directed by Mark
McLoughlin, which examines the phenomenon of femicide in Juárez through the
work of an artist, Brian Maguire.
The film Backyard: El
Traspatio (2009), directed by Carlos
Carrera, is based on these events.
The film Bordertown
(2006), starring Jennifer Lopez and Antonio Banderas, is based on these
murders.
The film Señorita
Extraviada/Missing Young Woman (2001) by Lourdes Portillo is a documentary following the femicides of
Juárez.
The documentary film Equal
Means Equal (2016) directed by Kamala
Lopez features a segment on the women of Juárez.
The documentary film Bajo
Juárez: La Ciudad Devorando a Sus Hijas (2006) directed by José Antonio Cordero and Alejandra Sánchez hints at the many
layers of political collusion and indifference from local, state and federal
authorities.
In music
Tori Amos wrote a
song about these incidents titled "Juárez",
for her album To Venus and Back
(1999-2000), after reading about them.
At the Drive-In's
song "Invalid Litter Dept."
(2001) contains lyrics about the murders.
Los Tigres del Norte's
song "Mujeres de Juárez"
discusses the lack of government action in finding the perpetrators.
The Misfits wrote
a song about Juárez titled "Where Do
They Go?" from their 2011 album The
Devil's Rain. In the lyrics, the incidents are referred to as femicides.
The World Is a
Beautiful Place & I Am No Longer
Afraid to Die's song "January
10th, 2014" is about the murders and the vigilante justice that took
place in their aftermath.
Intocable's song Día 730 has an example that links it to
one girl who was going to become famous, but instead became one of the victims
for feminicide.
Sheer Mag's song "Can't Stop Fighting," from
their third EP, references the phenomenon in its first lines.
In print
In Roberto Bolaño's
novel, 2666 (2004), the murders serve as inspiration for a major section
entitled "The Part about the
Crimes", although the novel is actually set in "Santa
Teresa", a fictionalized version of Ciudad Juárez.
Alicia Gaspar de Alba's
mystery novel, Desert Blood (2005),
addresses this topic.
"Each and
Her" (2010) by Valerie Martinez
is a book-length poem that addresses the murders in the context of politics,
gender oppression, mythology, art, and more.
"If I Die In
Juárez" (2008) by Stella Pope
Duarte
In Eve Ensler's Vagina Monologues, female homicides in Juárez feature in the
monologue "Memory of Her Face".
"Señorita X -
Song for the Yellow-Robed Girl from Juárez" (2007) by Juan Felipe Herrera
"The Daughters of
Juárez: A True Story of Serial Murder South of the Border" (2007) by Teresa Rodríguez
The Way She Spoke
written by Isaac Gomez
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