St. Augustine, Florida, 1963–64
St. Augustine was famous as the "Nation's Oldest City", founded by the Spanish in 1565.
It became the stage for a great drama leading up to the passage of the landmark
Civil Rights Act of 1964. A local movement, led by Dr. Robert B. Hayling, a
black dentist and Air Force veteran affiliated with the NAACP, had been
picketing segregated local institutions since 1963. In the fall of 1964,
Hayling and three companions were brutally beaten at a Ku Klux Klan rally.
Nightriders shot into black homes, and teenagers Audrey Nell
Edwards, JoeAnn Anderson, Samuel White, and Willie Carl Singleton (who came to
be known as "The St. Augustine
Four") sat in at a local Woolworth's lunch counter, seeking to get
served. They were arrested and convicted of trespassing, and sentenced to six
months in jail and reform school. It took a special act of the governor and cabinet
of Florida to release them after national protests by the Pittsburgh Courier,
Jackie Robinson, and others.
In response to the repression, the St. Augustine movement
practiced armed self-defense in addition to nonviolent direct action. In June
1963, Dr. Hayling publicly stated that "I
and the others have armed. We will shoot first and answer questions later. We
are not going to die like Medgar Evers." The comment made national
headlines. When Klan nightriders terrorized black neighborhoods in St. Augustine,
Hayling's NAACP members often drove them off with gunfire. In October 1963, a
Klansman was killed.
In 1964, Dr. Hayling and other activists urged the Southern
Christian Leadership Conference to come to St. Augustine. Four prominent
Massachusetts women – Mary Parkman Peabody, Esther Burgess, Hester Campbell
(all of whose husbands were Episcopal bishops), and Florence Rowe (whose
husband was vice president of John Hancock Insurance Company) – also came to
lend their support. The arrest of Mrs. Peabody, the 72-year-old mother of the
governor of Massachusetts, for attempting to eat at the segregated Ponce de
Leon Motor Lodge in an integrated group, made front-page news across the
country and brought the movement in St. Augustine to the attention of the world.
Widely publicized activities continued in the ensuing
months. When Dr. King was arrested, he sent a "Letter from the St.
Augustine Jail" to a northern supporter, Rabbi Israel Dresner. A week
later, in the largest mass arrest of rabbis in American history took place,
while they were conducting a pray-in at the segregated Monson Motel. A
well-known photograph taken in St. Augustine shows the manager of the Monson
Motel pouring muriatic acid in the swimming pool while blacks and whites are
swimming in it. The horrifying photograph was run on the front page of a
Washington newspaper the day the Senate was to vote on passing the Civil Rights
Act of 1964.
Chester School
Protests, Spring 1964
In the early 1960s, racial unrest and civil rights protests
led by George Raymond of the National Association for the Advancement of
Colored Persons (NAACP) and Stanley Branche of the Committee for Freedom Now
(CFFN) made Chester, Pennsylvania one of the key battlegrounds of the civil
rights movement. James Farmer, the national director of the Congress of Racial
Equality called Chester "the
Birmingham of the North".
In 1962, Branche and the CFFN focused on improving
conditions at the predominantly black Franklin Elementary school in Chester.
Although the school was built to house 500 students, it had become overcrowded
with 1,200 students. The school's average class-size was 39, twice the number of
nearby all-white schools. In November 1963, CFFN protesters blocked the
entrance to Franklin Elementary school and the Chester Municipal Building
resulting in the arrest of 240 protesters. Following public attention to the
protests stoked by media coverage of the mass arrests, the mayor and school
board negotiated with the CFFN and NAACP. The Chester Board of Education agreed
to reduce class sizes at Franklin school, remove unsanitary toilet facilities, and
relocate classes held in the boiler room and coal bin and repair school
grounds.
Emboldened by the success of the Franklin Elementary school
demonstrations, the CFFN recruited new members, sponsored voter registration
drives and planned a citywide boycott of Chester schools. Branche built close
ties with students at nearby Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania Military College
and Cheyney State College in order to ensure large turnouts at demonstrations
and protests. Branche invited Dick Gregory and Malcolm X to Chester to
participate in the "Freedom Now
Conference" and other national civil rights leaders such as Gloria
Richardson came to Chester in support of the demonstrations.
In 1964, a series of almost nightly protests brought chaos
to Chester as protestors argued that the Chester School Board had de facto
segregation of schools. The mayor of Chester, James Gorbey, issued "The Police Position to Preserve the
Public Peace", a ten-point statement promising an immediate return to
law and order. The city deputized firemen and trash collectors to help handle
demonstrators. The State of Pennsylvania deployed 50 state troopers to assist
the 77-member Chester police force. The demonstrations were marked by violence
and charges of police brutality. Over six hundred people were arrested over a
two month period of civil rights rallies, marches, pickets, boycotts and
sit-ins. Pennsylvania Governor William Scranton became involved in the negotiations
and convinced Branche to obey a court-ordered moratorium on demonstrations.
Freedom Summer, 1964
In the summer of 1964, COFO brought nearly 1,000 activists
to Mississippi—most of them white college students—to join with local black
activists to register voters, teach in "Freedom
Schools," and organize the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
(MFDP).
Many of Mississippi's white residents deeply resented the
outsiders and attempts to change their society. State and local governments,
police, the White Citizens' Council and the Ku Klux Klan used arrests,
beatings, arson, murder, spying, firing, evictions, and other forms of
intimidation and harassment to oppose the project and prevent blacks from
registering to vote or achieving social equality.
On June 21, 1964, three civil rights workers disappeared:
James Chaney, a young black Mississippian and plasterer's apprentice; and two
Jewish activists, Andrew Goodman, a Queens College anthropology student; and
Michael Schwerner, a CORE organizer from Manhattan's Lower East Side. They were
found weeks later, murdered by conspirators who turned out to be local members
of the Klan, some of them members of the Neshoba County sheriff's department.
This outraged the public, leading the U.S. Justice Department along with the
FBI (the latter which had previously avoided dealing with the issue of
segregation and persecution of blacks) to take action. The outrage over these
murders helped lead to the passage of the Civil Rights Act.
From June to August, Freedom Summer activists worked in 38
local projects scattered across the state, with the largest number concentrated
in the Mississippi Delta region. At least 30 Freedom Schools, with close to
3,500 students, were established, and 28 community centers set up.
Over the course of the Summer Project, some 17,000
Mississippi blacks attempted to become registered voters in defiance of the red
tape and forces of white supremacy arrayed against them—only 1,600 (less than
10%) succeeded. But more than 80,000 joined the Mississippi Freedom Democratic
Party (MFDP), founded as an alternative political organization, showing their
desire to vote and participate in politics.
Though Freedom Summer failed to register many voters, it had
a significant effect on the course of the civil rights movement. It helped
break down the decades of people's isolation and repression that were the
foundation of the Jim Crow system. Before Freedom Summer, the national news
media had paid little attention to the persecution of black voters in the Deep
South and the dangers endured by black civil rights workers. The progression of
events throughout the South increased media attention to Mississippi.
The deaths of affluent northern white students and threats
to other northerners attracted the full attention of the media spotlight to the
state. Many black activists became embittered, believing the media valued lives
of whites and blacks differently. Perhaps the most significant effect of
Freedom Summer was on the volunteers, almost all of whom—black and white—still
consider it to have been one of the defining periods of their lives.
Civil Rights Act of
1964
Although President Kennedy had proposed civil rights
legislation and it had support from Northern Congressmen and Senators of both
parties, Southern Senators blocked the bill by threatening filibusters. After
considerable parliamentary maneuvering and 54 days of filibuster on the floor
of the United States Senate, President Johnson got a bill through the Congress.
On July 2, 1964, Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of
1964, which banned discrimination based on "race,
color, religion, sex or national origin" in employment practices and
public accommodations. The bill authorized the Attorney General to file
lawsuits to enforce the new law. The law also nullified state and local laws
that required such discrimination.
Harlem riot of 1964
When police shot an unarmed black teenager in Harlem in July
1964, tensions escalated out of control. Residents were frustrated with racial
inequalities. Rioting broke out, and Bedford-Stuyvesant, a major black
neighborhood in Brooklyn erupted next. That summer, rioting also broke out in
Philadelphia, for similar reasons. The riots were on a much smaller scale than
what would occur in 1965 and later.
Washington responded with a pilot program called Project
Uplift. Thousands of young people in Harlem were given jobs during the summer
of 1965. The project was inspired by a report generated by HARYOU called Youth
in the Ghetto. HARYOU was given a major role in organizing the project, together
with the National Urban League and nearly 100 smaller community organizations.
Permanent jobs at living wages were still out of reach of many young black men.
Mississippi Freedom
Democratic Party, 1964
Blacks in Mississippi had been disfranchised by statutory
and constitutional changes since the late 19th century. In 1963 COFO held a
Freedom Vote in Mississippi to demonstrate the desire of black Mississippians
to vote. More than 80,000 people registered and voted in the mock election,
which pitted an integrated slate of candidates from the "Freedom Party" against the official state Democratic
Party candidates.
In 1964, organizers launched the Mississippi Freedom
Democratic Party (MFDP) to challenge the all-white official party. When
Mississippi voting registrars refused to recognize their candidates, they held
their own primary. They selected Fannie Lou Hamer, Annie Devine, and Victoria
Gray to run for Congress, and a slate of delegates to represent Mississippi at
the 1964 Democratic National Convention.
The presence of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party in
Atlantic City, New Jersey, was inconvenient, however, for the convention
organizers. They had planned a triumphant celebration of the Johnson
administration's achievements in civil rights, rather than a fight over racism
within the Democratic Party. All-white delegations from other Southern states
threatened to walk out if the official slate from Mississippi was not seated.
Johnson was worried about the inroads that Republican Barry Goldwater's
campaign was making in what previously had been the white Democratic stronghold
of the "Solid South", as well as support that George Wallace had
received in the North during the Democratic primaries.
Johnson could not, however, prevent the MFDP from taking its
case to the Credentials Committee. There Fannie Lou Hamer testified eloquently
about the beatings that she and others endured and the threats they faced for
trying to register to vote. Turning to the television cameras, Hamer asked, "Is this America?"
Johnson offered the MFDP a "compromise" under which it would receive two non-voting,
at-large seats, while the white delegation sent by the official Democratic
Party would retain its seats. The MFDP angrily rejected the "compromise."
The MFDP kept up its agitation at the convention after it
was denied official recognition. When all but three of the "regular" Mississippi delegates left because they refused
to pledge allegiance to the party, the MFDP delegates borrowed passes from
sympathetic delegates and took the seats vacated by the official Mississippi
delegates. National party organizers removed them. When they returned the next
day, they found convention organizers had removed the empty seats that had been
there the day before. They stayed and sang "freedom
songs".
The 1964 Democratic Party convention disillusioned many
within the MFDP and the civil rights movement, but it did not destroy the MFDP.
The MFDP became more radical after Atlantic City. It invited Malcolm X to speak
at one of its conventions and opposed the war in Vietnam.
Selma Voting Rights
Movement
SNCC had undertaken an ambitious voter registration program
in Selma, Alabama, in 1963, but by 1965 little headway had been made in the
face of opposition from Selma's sheriff, Jim Clark. After local residents asked
the SCLC for assistance, King came to Selma to lead several marches, at which
he was arrested along with 250 other demonstrators. The marchers continued to
meet violent resistance from police. Jimmie Lee Jackson, a resident of nearby
Marion, was killed by police at a later march in February 17, 1965. Jackson's
death prompted James Bevel, director of the Selma Movement, to initiate and
organize a plan to march from Selma to Montgomery, the state capital.
On March 7, 1965, acting on Bevel's plan, Hosea Williams of
the SCLC and John Lewis of SNCC led a march of 600 people to walk the 54 miles
(87 km) from Selma to the state capital in Montgomery. Six blocks into the
march, at the Edmund Pettus Bridge where the marchers left the city and moved
into the county, state troopers and local county law enforcement, some mounted
on horseback, attacked the peaceful demonstrators with billy clubs, tear gas,
rubber tubes wrapped in barbed wire, and bull whips. They drove the marchers
back into Selma. Lewis was knocked unconscious and dragged to safety. At least
16 other marchers were hospitalized. Among those gassed and beaten was Amelia
Boynton Robinson, who was at the center of civil rights activity at the time.
The national broadcast of the news footage of lawmen
attacking unresisting marchers' seeking to exercise their constitutional right
to vote provoked a national response, and hundreds of people from all over the
country came for a second march. These marchers were turned around by Dr. King
at the last minute so as not to violate a federal injunction. With the support
of James Forman and other SNCC leaders, activists throughout the country
committed civil disobedience for Selma, particularly in Montgomery and at the
White House. The marchers were able to lift the injunction and obtain
protection from federal troops, permitting them to make the march across
Alabama without incident two weeks later.
The evening of a second march on March 9 to the site of
Bloody Sunday, local whites attacked Rev. James Reeb, a voting rights
supporter. He died of his injuries in a Birmingham hospital March 11. On March
25, four Klansmen shot and killed Detroit homemaker Viola Liuzzo as she drove
marchers back to Selma at night after the successfully completed march to
Montgomery.
Voting Rights Act,
1965
Eight days after the first march, but before the final
march, President Johnson delivered a televised address to support the voting
rights bill he had sent to Congress. In it he stated:
Their cause must be
our cause too. Because it is not just Negroes, but really it is all of us, who
must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice. And we shall
overcome.
Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965 on August 6.
The 1965 act suspended literacy tests and other subjective voter registration
tests. It authorized Federal supervision of voter registration in states and
individual voting districts where such tests were being used and where African
Americans were historically under-represented in voting rolls compared to the
eligible population. African Americans who had been barred from registering to
vote finally had an alternative to taking suits to local or state courts, which
had seldom prosecuted their cases to success. If discrimination in voter registration
occurred, the 1965 act authorized the Attorney General of the United States to
send Federal examiners to replace local registrars.
Within months of the bill's passage, 250,000 new black
voters had been registered, one-third of them by federal examiners. Within four
years, voter registration in the South had more than doubled. In 1965,
Mississippi had the highest black voter turnout at 74% and led the nation in
the number of black public officials elected. In 1969, Tennessee had a 92.1%
turnout among black voters; Arkansas, 77.9%; and Texas, 73.1%.
Several whites who had opposed the Voting Rights Act paid a
quick price. In 1966 Sheriff Jim Clark of Selma, Alabama, infamous for using
cattle prods against civil rights marchers, was up for reelection. Although he
took off the notorious "Never"
pin on his uniform, he was defeated. At the election, Clark lost as blacks
voted to get him out of office.
Blacks' regaining the power to vote changed the political
landscape of the South. When Congress passed the Voting Rights Act, only about
100 African Americans held elective office, all in northern states. By 1989,
there were more than 7,200 African Americans in office, including more than
4,800 in the South. Nearly every Black Belt county (where populations were
majority black) in Alabama had a black sheriff. Southern blacks held top
positions in city, county, and state governments.
Atlanta elected a black mayor, Andrew Young, as did Jackson,
Mississippi, with Harvey Johnson Jr., and New Orleans, with Ernest Morial.
Black politicians on the national level included Barbara Jordan, elected as a
Representative from Texas in Congress, and President Jimmy Carter appointed
Andrew Young as United States Ambassador to the United Nations. Julian Bond was
elected to the Georgia State Legislature in 1965, although political reaction
to his public opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War prevented
him from taking his seat until 1967. John Lewis was first elected in 1986 to
represent Georgia's 5th congressional district in the United States House of
Representatives, where he has served since 1987.
Watts riot of 1965
The new Voting Rights Act of 1965 had no immediate effect on
living conditions for poor blacks. A few days after the act became law, a riot
broke out in the South Central Los Angeles neighborhood of Watts. Like Harlem,
Watts was a majority-black neighborhood with very high unemployment and
associated poverty. Its residents confronted a largely white police department
that had a history of abuse against blacks.
While arresting a young man for drunk driving, police
officers argued with the suspect's mother before onlookers. The spark triggered
a massive destruction of property through six days of rioting. Thirty-four
people were killed and property valued at about $30 million was destroyed,
making the Watts Riots among the most expensive in American history.
With black militancy on the rise, ghetto residents directed
acts of anger at the police. Black residents growing tired of police brutality
continued to riot. Some young people joined groups such as the Black Panthers,
whose popularity was based in part on their reputation for confronting police
officers. Riots among blacks occurred in 1966 and 1967 in cities such as
Atlanta, San Francisco, Oakland, Baltimore, Seattle, Tacoma, Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Columbus, Newark, Chicago, New York City (specifically in Brooklyn,
Harlem and the Bronx), and worst of all in Detroit.
Fair housing
movements, 1966–1968
The first major blow against housing segregation in the era,
the Rumford Fair Housing Act, was passed in California in 1963. It was
overturned by white California voters and real estate lobbyists the following
year with Proposition 14, a move which helped precipitate the Watts Riots. In
1966, the California Supreme Court invalidated Proposition 14 and reinstated
the Fair Housing Act.
Working and organizing for fair housing laws became a major
project of the movement over the next two years, with Martin Luther King Jr.,
James Bevel, and Al Raby leading the Chicago Freedom Movement around the issue
in 1966. In the following year, Father James Groppi and the NAACP Youth Council
also attracted national attention with a fair housing campaign in Milwaukee.
Both movements faced violent resistance from white homeowners and legal
opposition from conservative politicians.
The Fair Housing Bill was the most contentious civil rights
legislation of the era. Senator Walter Mondale, who advocated for the bill,
noted that over successive years, it was the most filibustered legislation in
U.S. history. It was opposed by most Northern and Southern senators, as well as
the National Association of Real Estate Boards. A proposed "Civil Rights Act of 1966" had collapsed completely
because of its fair housing provision. Mondale commented that:
A lot of civil rights [legislation] was about making the
South behave and taking the teeth from George Wallace, [but] this came right to
the neighborhoods across the country. This was civil rights getting personal.
Nationwide riots of
1967
In 1967 riots broke out in black neighborhoods in more than
100 U.S. cities, including Detroit, Newark, Cincinnati, Cleveland, and
Washington, D.C. The largest of these was the 1967 Detroit riot.
In Detroit, a large black middle class had begun to develop
among those African Americans who worked at unionized jobs in the automotive
industry. These workers complained of persisting racist practices, limiting the
jobs they could have and opportunities for promotion. The United Auto Workers channeled
these complaints into bureaucratic and ineffective grievance procedures.
Violent white mobs enforced the segregation of housing up through the 1960s.
Blacks who were not upwardly mobile were living in substandard conditions,
subject to the same problems as poor African Americans in Watts and Harlem.
When white Detroit Police Department (DPD) officers shut
down an illegal bar and arrested a large group of patrons during the hot
summer, furious black residents rioted. Rioters looted and destroyed property
while snipers engaged in firefights from rooftops and windows, undermining the
DPD's ability to curtail the disorder. In response, the Michigan Army National
Guard and U.S. Army paratroopers were deployed to reinforce the DPD and protect
Detroit Fire Department (DFD) firefighters from attacks while putting out
fires. Residents reported that police officers and National Guardsmen shot at
black civilians and suspects indiscriminately. After five days, 43 people had
been killed, hundreds injured, and thousands left homeless. $40 to $45 million worth
of damage was caused.
State and local governments responded to the riot with a
dramatic increase in minority hiring. In the aftermath of the turmoil, the
Greater Detroit Board of Commerce also launched a campaign to find jobs for ten
thousand "previously
unemployable" persons, a preponderant number of whom were black. Governor
George Romney immediately responded to the riot of 1967 with a special session
of the Michigan legislature where he forwarded sweeping housing proposals that included
not only fair housing, but "important
relocation, tenants' rights and code enforcement legislation." Romney
had supported such proposals in 1965, but abandoned them in the face of
organized opposition. The laws passed both houses of the legislature. Historian
Sidney Fine wrote that:
The Michigan Fair
Housing Act, which took effect on November 15, 1968, was stronger than the
federal fair housing law...It is probably more than a coincidence that the
state that had experienced the most severe racial disorder of the 1960s also
adopted one of the strongest state fair housing acts.
President Johnson created the National Advisory Commission
on Civil Disorders in response to nationwide wave of riots. The commission's
final report called for major reforms in employment and public policy in black
communities. It warned that the United States was moving toward separate white
and black societies.
Memphis, King Assassination
and the Poor People's March 1968
Rev. James Lawson invited King to Memphis, Tennessee, in
March 1968 to support a sanitation workers' strike. These workers launched a
campaign for union representation after two workers were accidentally killed on
the job; they were seeking fair wages and improved working conditions. King
considered their struggle to be a vital part of the Poor People's Campaign he
was planning.
A day after delivering his stirring "I've Been to the Mountaintop" sermon, which has become
famous for his vision of American society, King was assassinated on April 4,
1968. Riots broke out in black neighborhoods in more than 110 cities across the
United States in the days that followed, notably in Chicago, Baltimore, and
Washington, D.C.
The day before King's funeral, April 8, Coretta Scott King
and three of the King children led 20,000 marchers through the streets of
Memphis, holding signs that read, "Honor
King: End Racism" and "Union
Justice Now". Armed National Guardsmen lined the streets, sitting on
M-48 tanks, to protect the marchers, and helicopters circled overhead. On April
9, Mrs. King led another 150,000 people in a funeral procession through the
streets of Atlanta. Her dignity revived courage and hope in many of the
Movement's members, confirming her place as the new leader in the struggle for
racial equality.
Coretta Scott King said,
[Martin Luther King
Jr.] gave his life for the poor of the world, the garbage workers of Memphis
and the peasants of Vietnam. The day that Negro people and others in bondage
are truly free, on the day want is abolished, on the day wars are no more, on
that day I know my husband will rest in a long-deserved peace.
Rev. Ralph Abernathy succeeded King as the head of the SCLC
and attempted to carry forth King's plan for a Poor People's March. It was to
unite blacks and whites to campaign for fundamental changes in American society
and economic structure. The march went forward under Abernathy's plainspoken
leadership but did not achieve its goals.
Civil Rights Act of
1968
As 1968 began, the fair housing bill was being filibustered
once again, but two developments revived it. The Kerner Commission report on
the 1967 ghetto riots was delivered to Congress on March 1, and it strongly
recommended "a comprehensive and
enforceable federal open housing law" as a remedy to the civil
disturbances. The Senate was moved to end their filibuster that week.
As the House of Representatives deliberated the bill in
April, Dr. King was assassinated, and the largest wave of unrest since the Civil
War swept the country. Senator Charles Mathias wrote that:
Some Senators and
Representatives publicly stated they would not be intimidated or rushed into
legislating because of the disturbances. Nevertheless, the news coverage of the
riots and the underlying disparities in income, jobs, housing, and education,
between White and Black Americans helped educate citizens and Congress about
the stark reality of an enormous social problem. Members of Congress knew they
had to act to redress these imbalances in American life to fulfil the dream
that King had so eloquently preached.
The House passed the legislation on April 10, and President
Johnson signed it the next day. The Civil Rights Act of 1968 prohibited
discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on
race, religion, and national origin. It also made it a federal crime to "by force or by threat of force,
injure, intimidate, or interfere with anyone...by reason of their race, color,
religion, or national origin."
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