Raphael Lemkin, Polish: Rafał Lemkin (June 24, 1900 – August
28, 1959) was a lawyer of Polish-Jewish descent who is best known for coining
the word genocide and initiating the Genocide Convention. Lemkin coined the
word genocide in 1943 or 1944 from genos (Greek for family, tribe, or race) and
-cide (Latin for killing).
Life
Early years
Lemkin was born Rafał Lemkin on 24 June 1900 in Bezwodne, a
village near the town of Wolkowysk in the Russian Empire. He grew up in a Polish Jewish family on a
large farm near Wolkowysk and was one of three children born to Joseph Lemkin
and Bella née Pomeranz. His father was a
farmer and his mother an intellectual, a painter, linguist, and philosophy
student with a large collection of books on literature and history. Lemkin and his two brothers (Elias and
Samuel) were homeschooled by their mother.
As a youth, Lemkin was fascinated by the subject of atrocities and would
often question his mother about such events as the Sack of Carthage, Mongol
invasions and conquests and the persecution of Huguenots. Lemkin apparently came across the concept of
mass atrocities while, at the age of 12, reading Quo Vadis by Henryk
Sienkiewicz, in particular the passage where Nero threw Christians to the
lions. During World War I, the Lemkin
family farm was located in an area of fighting between Russian and German
troops. The family buried their books
and valuables before taking shelter in a nearby forest. During the fighting, artillery fire
destroyed their home and German troops seized their crops, horses and
livestock. Lemkin's brother Samuel
eventually died of pneumonia and malnutrition while the family remained in the
forest.
After graduating from a local trade school in Białystok he
began the study of linguistics at the Jan Kazimierz University of Lwów (now
Lviv, Ukraine). He was a polyglot, fluent in nine languages and reading
fourteen. His first published book was a
1926 translation of the Hayim Nahman Bialik novella Noach i Marynka from Hebrew
into Polish. It was in Bialystok that
Lemkin became interested in the concept of crime, later developing the concept
of genocide, based on the Armenian experience at the hands of the Ottoman
Turks, failed verification] then later the experience of Assyrians massacred in Iraq during the 1933 Simele
massacre. Lemkin then moved on to Heidelberg University in Germany to study
philosophy, returned to Lwów to study law in 1926, becoming a prosecutor in
Warsaw at graduation.
His subsequent career as assistant prosecutor in the
District Court of Brzeżany (since 1945 Berezhany, Ukraine) and Warsaw, followed
by a private legal practice in Warsaw, did not divert Lemkin from elaborating
rudiments of international law dealing with group exterminations.
Career in interwar
Poland
From 1929 to 1934, Lemkin was the Public Prosecutor for the
district court of Warsaw. In 1930 he was promoted to Deputy Prosecutor in a
local court in Brzeżany. While Public Prosecutor, Lemkin was also secretary of
the Committee on Codification of the Laws of the Republic of Poland, which
codified the penal codes of Poland, and taught law at Tachkemoni College in
Warsaw. Lemkin, working with Duke University law professor Malcolm McDermott,
translated The Polish Penal Code of 1932 from Polish to English.
In 1933 Lemkin made a presentation to the Legal Council of
the League of Nations conference on international criminal law in Madrid, for
which he prepared an essay on the Crime of Barbarity as a crime against
international law. The concept of the crime, which later evolved into the idea
of genocide, was based on the Armenian Genocide and prompted by the experience
of Assyrians massacred in Iraq during the 1933 Simele massacre. In 1934 Lemkin, under pressure from the
Polish Foreign Minister for comments made at the Madrid conference, resigned
his position and became a private solicitor in Warsaw. While in Warsaw, Lemkin
attended numerous lectures organized by the Free Polish University, including
the classes of Emil Stanisław Rappaport and Wacław Makowski.
In 1937, Lemkin was appointed a member of the Polish mission
to the 4th Congress on Criminal Law in Paris, where he also introduced the
possibility of defending peace through criminal law. Among the most important
of his works of that period are a compendium of Polish criminal fiscal law,
Prawo karne skarbowe (1938) and a French language work, La réglementation des
paiements internationaux, regarding international trade law (1939).
During WWII
He left Warsaw on 6 September 1939 and made his way towards
Wolkowysk, north east of Lwów, caught between the Germans in the west, and the
Soviets, who now approached from the east, Poland's independence extinguished
by the pact between Stalin and Hitler.
He barely evaded capture by the Germans and traveled through Lithuania
to reach Sweden by the early spring of 1940 where he lectured at the University
of Stockholm. Curious about the manner of imposition of Nazi rule he started to
gather Nazi decrees and ordinances, believing official documents often
reflected underlying objectives without stating them explicitly. He spent much
time in the central library of Stockholm, gathering, translating and analyzing
the documents he collected, looking for patterns of German behaviour. Lemkin's
work led him to see the wholesale destruction of the nations over which Germans
took control as an overall aim. Some documents Lemkin analyzed had been signed
by Hitler, implementing ideas of Mein Kampf on Lebensraum, new living space to
be inhabited by Germans. With the help
of his pre-war associate McDermott, Lemkin received permission to enter the
United States, arriving in 1941.
Although he managed to save his life, he lost 49 relatives
in the Holocaust; The only European
members of Lemkin's family who survived the Holocaust were his brother, Elias,
and his wife and two sons, who had been sent to a Soviet forced labor camp.
Lemkin did however successfully help his brother and family to emigrate to
Montreal, Quebec, Canada in 1948.
After arriving in the United States, at the invitation of
McDermott, Lemkin joined the law faculty at Duke University in North Carolina
in 1941. During the Summer of 1942 Lemkin lectured at the School of Military
Government at the University of Virginia. He also wrote Military Government in
Europe, which was a preliminary version of his more fully developed publication
Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. In 1943 Lemkin was appointed consultant to the
U.S. Board of Economic Warfare and Foreign Economic
Administration and later became a special adviser on foreign
affairs to the War Department, largely due to his expertise in international
law.
In November 1944, the Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace published Lemkin's most important work, entitled Axis Rule in Occupied
Europe, in the United States. This book included an extensive legal analysis of
German rule in countries occupied by Nazi Germany during the course of World
War II, along with the definition of the term genocide. Lemkin's idea of genocide as an offense
against international law was widely accepted by the international community
and was one of the legal bases of the Nuremberg Trials. In 1945 to 1946, Lemkin
became an advisor to Supreme Court of the United States Justice and Nuremberg
Trial chief counsel Robert H. Jackson. The book became one of the foundational
texts in Holocaust studies, and the study of totalitarianism, mass violence,
and genocide studies.
Postwar
After the war, Lemkin chose to remain in the United States.
Starting in 1948, he gave lectures on criminal law at Yale University. In 1955,
he became a Professor of Law at Rutgers School of Law in Newark. Lemkin also
continued his campaign for international laws defining and forbidding genocide,
which he had championed ever since the Madrid conference of 1933. He proposed a
similar ban on crimes against humanity during the Paris Peace Conference of
1945, but his proposal was turned down.
Lemkin presented a draft resolution for a Genocide
Convention treaty to a number of countries, in an effort to persuade them to
sponsor the resolution. With the support of the United States, the resolution
was placed before the General Assembly for consideration. The Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was formally presented and
adopted on December 9, 1948. In 1951,
Lemkin only partially achieved his goal when the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide came into force, after the 20th nation
had ratified the treaty.
Lemkin's broader concerns over genocide, as set out in his
Axis Rule, also embraced what may be considered as non-physical, namely,
psychological acts of genocide. The book also detailed the various techniques
which had been employed to achieve genocide.
Between 1953 and 1957, Lemkin worked directly with
representatives of several governments, such as Egypt, to outlaw genocide under
the domestic penal codes of these countries. Lemkin also worked with a team of
lawyers from Arab delegations at the United Nations to build a case to
prosecute French officials for genocide in Algeria.
Death
Lemkin died of a heart attack at the public relations office
of Milton H. Blow in New York City in 1959, at the age of 59. Lemkin's funeral
was well attended at Riverside Church in NYC.
He was buried in Mount Hebron Cemetery, Flushing, Queens, New York.
Opinions
Influence of the Armenian Genocide
Over one million Armenians died in the Armenian Genocide,
which took place between the years of 1915 and 1917. Lemkin's interest in
prosecuting the perpetrators was sparked when he first learned about the
genocide during his studies at University of Lwów (from which he graduated in
1926). In his autobiography, Lemkin wrote that he had been influenced by the
March 15, 1921 assassination of Talaat Pasha:
Then one day I read in
the newspapers that all Turkish war criminals were to be released... The
Turkish criminals released from Malta dispersed all over the world. The most
frightful among them was Talaat Pasha, the minister of the interior of Turkey,
who was identified with the destruction of the Armenian people... One day he
was stopped in the street by a young Armenian with the name Tehlirian. After
identifying Talaat Pasha, Tehlirian shot him saying, 'This is for my mother.'
This event became a topic of discussion for Lemkin during
his studies on the topic of sovereignty at Lwów: "Sovereignty… 'Cannot be
conceived as the right to kill millions of people." The murder of Talaat Pasha and trial of
Tehlirian prompted Lemkin's future path. Lemkin wrote: "At that moment, my
worries about the murder of the innocent became more meaningful to me. I didn't
know all the answers but I felt that a law against this type of racial or
religious murder must be adopted by the world."
Views on the
Ukrainian Great Famine (Holodomor)
In 1953, in a speech given in New York City, Lemkin
described the Holodomor as one part of "perhaps the classic example of
Soviet genocide, its longest and broadest experiment in Russification—the
destruction of the Ukrainian nation", going on to point out that "the
Ukrainian is not and never has been a Russian. His culture, his temperament,
his language, his religion, are all different... to eliminate (Ukrainian)
nationalism... the Ukrainian peasantry was sacrificed...a famine was necessary
for the Soviet and so they got one to order... if the Soviet program succeeds
completely, if the intelligentsia, the priest, and the peasant can be
eliminated [then] Ukraine will be as dead as if every Ukrainian were killed,
for it will have lost that part of it which has kept and developed its culture,
its beliefs, its common ideas, which have guided it and given it a soul, which,
in short, made it a nation... This is not simply a case of mass murder. It is a
case of genocide, of the destruction, not of individuals only, but of a culture
and a nation."
On Sunday, 20 September 1953, as part of a protest in New
York, The Ukrainian Weekly reported a speech by Lemkin:
An inspiring address
was delivered at the rally by Prof. Raphael Lemkin, author of the United
Nations Convention against Genocide, that is, deliberate mass murder of peoples
by their oppressors. Prof. Lemkin reviewed in a moving fashion the fate of the
millions of Ukrainians before and after 1932–33, who died victims to the Soviet
Russian plan to exterminate as many of them as possible in order to break the
heroic Ukrainian national resistance to Soviet Russian rule and occupation and
to Communism.
Recognition
For his work on international law and the prevention of war
crimes, Lemkin received a number of awards, including the Cuban Grand Cross of
the Order of Carlos Manuel de Cespedes in 1950, the Stephen Wise Award of the
American Jewish Congress in 1951, and the Cross of Merit of the Federal
Republic of Germany in 1955. On the 50th anniversary of the Convention entering
into force, Dr. Lemkin was also honored by the UN Secretary-General as "an
inspiring example of moral engagement." He was nominated for the Nobel
Peace Prize ten times.
In 1989 he was awarded, posthumously, the Four Freedoms
Award for the Freedom of Worship.
Lemkin is the subject of the plays Lemkin's House by
Catherine Filloux (2005), and If The Whole Body Dies: Raphael Lemkin and the
Treaty Against Genocide by Robert Skloot (2006). He was also profiled in the 2014 American
documentary film, Watchers of the Sky.
Every year, The Rabbinic Call for Human Rights (T’ruah)
gives the Raphael Lemkin Human Rights Award to a layperson who draws on his or
her Jewish values to be a human rights leader.
On 20 November 2015, Lemkin's article Soviet genocide in Ukraine
was added to the Russian index of "extremist publications", whose
distribution in Russia is forbidden.
Works
The Polish Penal Code of 1932 and The Law of Minor Offenses.
Translated by McDermott, Malcolm; Lemkin, Raphael. Durham,
Lemkin, Raphael (1933). Acts Constituting a General
(Transnational) Danger Considered as Offences Against the Law of Nations (5th
Conference for the Unification of Penal Law).
Lemkin, Raphael (1939). La réglementation des paiements
internationaux; traité de droit comparé sur les devises, le clearing et les
accords de paiements, les conflits des lois.
Lemkin, Raphael
(1942). Key laws, decrees and regulations issued by the Axis in occupied
Europe. Washington: Board of Economic Warfare, Blockade and Supply Branch,
Reoccupation Division.
Lemkin, Raphael (2008). Axis rule in occupied Europe : laws
of occupation, analysis of government, proposals for redress.
Lemkin, Raphael (April 1945). "Genocide - A Modern
Crime".
Lemkin, Raphael (April 1946). "The Crime of
Genocide".
"Genocide: A Commentary on the Convention".
Stone, Dan (2013). The Holocaust, Fascism, and memory :
essays in the history of ideas
Lemkin, Raphael, Soviet Genocide in the Ukraine
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