Y2K Problem

The year 2000 problem, also known as the Y2K problem, Y2K scare, millennium bug, Y2K bug, Y2K glitch, Y2K error, or simply Y2K refers to potential computer errors related to the formatting and storage of calendar data for dates in and after the year 2000. Many programs represented four-digit years with only the final two digits, making the year 2000 indistinguishable from 1900. Computer systems' inability to distinguish dates correctly had the potential to bring down worldwide infrastructures for industries ranging from banking to air travel.

In the years leading up to the turn of the century (millennium), the public gradually became aware of the "Y2K scare", and individual companies predicted the global damage caused by the bug would require anything between $400 million and $600 billion to rectify. A lack of clarity regarding the potential dangers of the bug led some to stock up on food, water, and firearms, purchase backup generators, and withdraw large sums of money in anticipation of a computer-induced apocalypse.

Contrary to published expectations, few major errors occurred in 2000. Supporters of the Y2K remediation effort argued that this was primarily due to the pre-emptive action of many computer programmers and information technology experts. Companies and organizations in some countries, but not all, had checked, fixed, and upgraded their computer systems to address the problem. Then-U.S. president Bill Clinton, who organized efforts to minimize the damage in the United States, labeled Y2K as "the first challenge of the 21st century successfully met", and retrospectives on the event typically commend the programmers who worked to avert the anticipated disaster.

Critics pointed out that even in countries where very little had been done to fix software, problems were minimal. The same was true in sectors such as schools and small businesses where compliance with Y2K policies was patchy at best.

Background

Y2K is a numeronym and was the common abbreviation for the year 2000 software problem. The abbreviation combines the letter Y for "year", the number 2 and a capitalized version of k for the SI unit prefix kilo meaning 1000; hence, 2K signifies 2000. It was also named the "millennium bug" because it was associated with the popular (rather than literal) rollover of the millennium, even though most of the problems could have occurred at the end of any century.

Computerworld's 1993 three-page "Doomsday 2000" article by Peter de Jager was called "the information-age equivalent of the midnight ride of Paul Revere" by The New York Times.

The problem was the subject of the early book Computers in Crisis by Jerome and Marilyn Murray (Petrocelli, 1984; reissued by McGraw-Hill under the title The Year 2000 Computing Crisis in 1996). Its first recorded mention on a Usenet newsgroup is from 18 January 1985 by Spencer Bolles.

The acronym Y2K has been attributed to Massachusetts programmer David Eddy in an e-mail sent on 12 June 1995. He later said, "People were calling it CDC (Century Date Change), FADL (Faulty Date Logic). There were other contenders. Y2K just came off my fingertips."

The problem started because on both mainframe computers and later personal computers, storage was expensive, from as low as $10 per kilobyte, to in many cases as much as or even more than US$100 per kilobyte. It was therefore very important for programmers to minimize usage. Since computers only gained wide usage in the 20th century, programs could simply prefix "19" to the year of a date, allowing them to only store the last two digits of the year instead of four. As space on disc and tape was also expensive, these strategies saved money by reducing the size of stored data files and databases in exchange for becoming unusable past the year 2000.

This meant that programs facing two-digit years could not distinguish between dates in 1900 and 2000. Dire warnings at times were in the mode of:

The Y2K problem is the electronic equivalent of the El Niño and there will be nasty surprises around the globe.

— John Hamre, United States Deputy Secretary of Defense

Options on the De Jager Year 2000 Index, "the first index enabling investors to manage risk associated with the ... computer problem linked to the year 2000" began trading mid-March 1997.

Special committees were set up by governments to monitor remedial work and contingency planning, particularly by crucial infrastructures such as telecommunications, utilities and the like, to ensure that the most critical services had fixed their own problems and were prepared for problems with others. While some commentators and experts argued that the coverage of the problem largely amounted to scaremongering, it was only the safe passing of the main event itself, 1 January 2000, that fully quelled public fears.

Some experts who argued that scaremongering was occurring, such as Ross Anderson, professor of security engineering at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory, have since claimed that despite sending out hundreds of press releases about research results suggesting that the problem was not likely to be as big as some had suggested, they were largely ignored by the media. In a similar vein, the Microsoft Press book Running Office 2000 Professional, published in May 1999, accurately predicted that most personal computer hardware and software would be unaffected by the year 2000 problem. Authors Michael Halvorson and Michael Young characterized most of the worries as popular hysteria, an opinion echoed by Microsoft Corp.

Programming problem

The practice of using two-digit dates for convenience predates computers, but was never a problem until stored dates were used in calculations.

Bit conservation need

I'm one of the culprits who created this problem. I used to write those programs back in the 1960s and 1970s, and was proud of the fact that I was able to squeeze a few elements of space out of my program by not having to put a 19 before the year. Back then, it was very important. We used to spend a lot of time running through various mathematical exercises before we started to write our programs so that they could be very clearly delimited with respect to space and the use of capacity. It never entered our minds that those programs would have lasted for more than a few years. As a consequence, they are very poorly documented. If I were to go back and look at some of the programs I wrote 30 years ago, I would have one terribly difficult time working my way through step-by-step.

—Alan Greenspan, 1998

Business data processing was done using unit record equipment and punched cards, most commonly the 80-column variety employed by IBM, which dominated the industry. Many tricks were used to squeeze needed data into fixed-field 80-character records. Saving two digits for every date field was significant in this effort.

In the 1960s, computer memory and mass storage were scarce and expensive. Early core memory cost one dollar per bit. Popular commercial computers, such as the IBM 1401, shipped with as little as 2 kilobytes of memory. Programs often mimicked card processing techniques. Commercial programming languages of the time, such as COBOL and RPG, processed numbers in their character representations. Over time, the punched cards were converted to magnetic tape and then disc files, but the structure of the data usually changed very little.

Data was still input using punched cards until the mid-1970s. Machine architectures, programming languages and application designs were evolving rapidly. Neither managers nor programmers of that time expected their programs to remain in use for many decades, and the possibility that these programs would both remain in use and cause problems when interacting with databases - a new type of program with different characteristics - went largely uncommented upon.

Early attention

The first person known to publicly address this issue was Bob Bemer, who had noticed it in 1958 as a result of work on genealogical software. He spent the next twenty years trying to make programmers, IBM, the government of the United States and the International Organization for Standardization aware of the problem, with little result. This included the recommendation that the COBOL picture clause should be used to specify four digit years for dates.

In the 1980s, the brokerage industry began to address this issue, mostly because of bonds with maturity dates beyond the year 2000. By 1987 the New York Stock Exchange had reportedly spent over $20 million, including "a team of 100" programmers on Y2K.

Despite magazine articles on the subject from 1970 onward, the majority of programmers and managers only started recognizing Y2K as a looming problem in the mid-1990s, but even then, inertia and complacency caused it to be mostly unresolved until the last few years of the decade. In 1989, Erik Naggum was instrumental in ensuring that internet mail used four digit representations of years by including a strong recommendation to this effect in the internet host requirements document RFC 1123. On April Fools' Day 1998, some companies set their mainframe computer dates to 2001, so that "the wrong date will be perceived as good fun instead of bad computing" while having a full day of testing.

While using 3-digit years and 3-digit dates within that year was used by some, others chose to use the number of days since a fixed date, such as 1 January 1900. Inaction was not an option, and risked major failure. Embedded systems with similar date logic were expected to malfunction and cause utilities and other crucial infrastructure to fail.

Saving space on stored dates persisted into the Unix era, with most systems representing dates to a single 32-bit word, typically representing dates as elapsed seconds from some fixed date, which causes the similar Y2K38 problem.

Resulting bugs from date programming

Storage of a combined date and time within a fixed binary field is often considered a solution, but the possibility for software to misinterpret dates remains because such date and time representations must be relative to some known origin. Rollover of such systems is still a problem but can happen at varying dates and can fail in various ways. For example:

An upscale grocer's 1997 credit-card caused crash of their 10 cash registers, repeatedly, due to year 2000 expiration dates, and was the source of the first Y2K-related lawsuit.

The Microsoft Excel spreadsheet program had a very elementary Y2K problem: Excel (in both Windows and Mac versions, when they are set to start at 1900) incorrectly set the year 1900 as a leap year for compatibility with Lotus 1-2-3. In addition, the years 2100, 2200, and so on, were regarded as leap years. This bug was fixed in later versions, but since the epoch of the Excel timestamp was set to the meaningless date of 0 January 1900 in previous versions, the year 1900 is still regarded as a leap year to maintain backward compatibility.

In the C programming language, the standard library function to extract the year from a timestamp returns the year minus 1900. Many programs using functions from C, such as Perl and Java, two programming languages widely used in web development, incorrectly treated this value as the last two digits of the year. On the web this was usually a harmless presentation bug, but it did cause many dynamically generated web pages to display 1 January 2000 as "1/1/19100", "1/1/100", or other variants, depending on the display format.

JavaScript was changed due to concerns over the Y2K bug, and the return value for years changed and thus differed between versions from sometimes being a four digit representation and sometimes a two-digit representation forcing programmers to rewrite already working code to make sure web pages worked for all versions.

Older applications written for the commonly used UNIX Source Code Control System failed to handle years that began with the digit "2".

In the Windows 3.x file manager, dates displayed as 1/1/19:0 for 1/1/2000 (because the colon is the character after "9" in the ASCII character set). An update was available.

Some software, such as Math Blaster Episode I: In Search of Spot which only treats years as two-digit values instead of four, will give a given year as "1900", "1901", and so on, depending on the last two digits of the present year.

Similar date bugs

4 January 1975

The date of 4 January 1975 overflowed the 12-bit field that had been used in the Decsystem 10 operating systems. There were numerous problems and crashes related to this bug while an alternative format was developed.

9 September 1999

Even before 1 January 2000 arrived, there were also some worries about 9 September 1999 (albeit less than those generated by Y2K). Because this date could also be written in the numeric format 9/9/99, it could have conflicted with the date value 9999, frequently used to specify an unknown date. It was thus possible that database programs might act on the records containing unknown dates on that day. Data entry operators commonly entered 9999 into required fields for an unknown future date, (e.g., a termination date for cable television or telephone service), in order to process computer forms using CICS software. Somewhat similar to this is the end-of-file code 9999, used in older programming languages. While fears arose that some programs might unexpectedly terminate on that date, the bug was more likely to confuse computer operators than machines.

Leap years

Normally, a year is a leap year if it is evenly divisible by four. A year divisible by 100 is not a leap year in the Gregorian calendar unless it is also divisible by 400. For example, 1600 was a leap year, but 1700, 1800 and 1900 were not. Some programs may have relied on the oversimplified rule that "a year divisible by four is a leap year". This method works fine for the year 2000 (because it is a leap year), and will not become a problem until 2100, when older legacy programs will likely have long since been replaced. Other programs contained incorrect leap year logic, assuming for instance that no year divisible by 100 could be a leap year. An assessment of this leap year problem including a number of real-life code fragments appeared in 1998. For information on why century years are treated differently, see Gregorian calendar.

Year 2010 problem

Some systems had problems once the year rolled over to 2010. This was dubbed by some in the media as the "Y2K+10" or "Y2.01K" problem.

The main source of problems was confusion between hexadecimal number encoding and binary-coded decimal encodings of numbers. Both hexadecimal and BCD encode the numbers 0–9 as 0x0–0x9. BCD encodes the number 10 as 0x10, while hexadecimal encodes the number 10 as 0x0A; 0x10 interpreted as a hexadecimal encoding represents the number 16.

For example, because the SMS protocol uses BCD for dates, some mobile phone software incorrectly reported dates of SMSes as 2016 instead of 2010. Windows Mobile is the first software reported to have been affected by this glitch; in some cases WM6 changes the date of any incoming SMS message sent after 1 January 2010 from the year 2010 to 2016.

Other systems affected include EFTPOS terminals, and the PlayStation 3 (except the Slim model).

The most important occurrences of such a glitch were in Germany, where up to 20 million bank cards became unusable, and with Citibank Belgium, whose digipass customer identification chips failed.

Year 2022 problem

Known as the Y2K22 bug. The maximum value of a signed 32-bit integer, as used in many computer systems, is 2147483647. Systems using an integer to represent a 10 character date-based field, where the leftmost two characters are the 2-digit year, ran into an issue on 1 January 2022 when the leftmost characters needed to be '22', i.e. values from 2200000001 needed to be represented.

Microsoft's Exchange server was one of the most famous and significant systems affected by the Y22 bug. The problem caused emails to be stuck on transport queues on Exchange Server 2016 and Exchange Server 2019, reporting the following error: “The FIP-FS “Microsoft” Scan Engine failed to load. PID: 23092, Error Code: 0x80004005. Error Description: Can't convert “2201010001” to long.”

Year 2038 problem

Many systems use Unix time and store it in a signed 32-bit integer. This data type is only capable of representing integers between −(231) and (231)−1, treated as number of seconds since the epoch at 1 January 1970 at 00:00:00 UTC. These systems can only represent times between 13 December 1901 at 20:45:52 UTC and 19 January 2038 at 03:14:07 UTC. If these systems are not updated and fixed, then dates all across the world that rely on Unix time will wrongfully display the year as 1901 beginning at 03:14:08 UTC on 19 January 2038.

Programming solutions

Several very different approaches were used to solve the year 2000 problem in legacy systems. Several of them follow:

Date expansion

Two-digit years were expanded to include the century (becoming four-digit years) in programs, files, and databases. This was considered the "purest" solution, resulting in unambiguous dates that are permanent and easy to maintain. This method was costly, requiring massive testing and conversion efforts, and usually affecting entire systems.

Date windowing

Two-digit years were retained, and programs determined the century value only when needed for particular functions, such as date comparisons and calculations. (The century "window" refers to the 100-year period to which a date belongs.) This technique, which required installing small patches of code into programs, was simpler to test and implement than date expansion, thus much less costly. While not a permanent solution, windowing fixes were usually designed to work for many decades. This was thought acceptable, as older legacy systems tend to eventually get replaced by newer technology.

Date compression

Dates can be compressed into binary 14-bit numbers. This allows retention of data structure alignment, using an integer value for years. Such a scheme is capable of representing 16384 different years; the exact scheme varies by the selection of epoch.

Date re-partitioning

In legacy databases whose size could not be economically changed, six-digit year/month/day codes were converted to three-digit years (with 1999 represented as 099 and 2001 represented as 101, etc.) and three-digit days (ordinal date in year). Only input and output instructions for the date fields had to be modified, but most other date operations and whole record operations required no change. This delays the eventual roll-over problem to the end of the year 2899.

Software kits

Software kits, such as those listed in CNN.com's Top 10 Y2K fixes for your PC: ("most ... free") which was topped by the $50 Millennium Bug Kit.

Bridge programs

Date servers where Call statements are used to access, add or update date fields.

Documented errors

Before 2000

On 1 January 1999, taxi meters in Singapore stopped working, while in Sweden, incorrect taxi fares were given.

On 28 December 1999, 10,000 card swipe machines issued by HSBC and manufactured by Racal stopped processing credit and debit card transactions. The stores relied on paper transactions until the machines started working again on 1 January.

On 1 January 2000

When 1 January 2000 arrived, there were problems generally regarded as minor. Consequences did not always result exactly at midnight. Some programs were not active at that moment and problems would only show up when they were invoked. Not all problems recorded were directly linked to Y2K programming in a causality; minor technological glitches occur on a regular basis.

Reported problems include:

In Australia, bus ticket validation machines in two states failed to operate.

In Ishikawa, Japan, radiation monitoring equipment failed at midnight. Officials said there was no risk to the public.

In Onagawa, Japan, an alarm sounded at a nuclear power plant at two minutes after midnight.

In Japan, at two minutes past midnight, the telecommunications carrier Osaka Media Port found errors in the date management part of the company's network. The problem was fixed by 02:43 and no services were disrupted.

In Japan, NTT Mobile Communications Network (NTT Docomo), Japan's largest cellular operator, reported that some models of mobile telephones were deleting new messages received, rather than the older messages, as the memory filled up.

In France, the national weather forecasting service, Météo-France, said a Y2K bug made the date on a webpage show a map with Saturday's weather forecast as "01/01/19100".

In Sheffield, United Kingdom, a Y2K bug caused miscalculation of the mothers' age and sent incorrect risk assessments for Down syndrome to 154 pregnant women. As a direct result two abortions were carried out, and four babies with Down syndrome were also born to mothers who had been told they were in the low-risk group.

In the United States, the US Naval Observatory, which runs the master clock that keeps the country's official time, gave the date on its website as 1 Jan 19100.

In the United States, as a direct result of the Y2K glitch, at midnight computers at a ground control station ceased processing information from an unspecified number of spy satellites. The military implemented a contingency plan by 03:00 am, and restored all normal functionality in approximately two days.

In the United States, 150 Delaware Lottery racino slot machines stopped working.

After January 2000

On 29 February and 1 March 2000

Problems were reported on February 29, 2000, Y2K's first Leap Year Day, and 1 March 2000. These were mostly minor.

In Japan, around five percent of post office cash dispensers failed to work and data from weather bureau computers was corrupted, causing them to release inaccurate readings.

In Bulgaria, police documents were issued with expiration dates of 29 February 2005 and 29 February 2010 (which are not leap years) and the system defaulted to 1900.

In the United States, the Coast Guard's message processing system was affected.

At Reagan National Airport, check-in lines lengthened after baggage handling programs were affected.

At Offutt Air Force Base south of Omaha, Nebraska, on February 29 records of aircraft maintenance parts could not be accessed.

On 31 December 2000 or 1 January 2001

Some software did not correctly recognize 2000 as a leap year, and so worked on the basis of the year having 365 days. On the last day of 2000 (day 366) these systems exhibited various errors. These were generally minor.

In Norway, some trains were delayed until their clocks were put back by a month.

The Swedish bank Nordbanken reported that its online and physical banking systems went down 5 times between December 27, 2000, and January 3rd, 2001, which was believed to be due to the Y2K glitch.

A "Y2K-like bug" affected a New York City government wireless system that was down for 10 days because of a GPS system's date-rollover problem. Infrastructure affected included "traffic lights, license-plate readers used by cops and other key functions."

A large number of cash registers at the convenience store chain 7-Eleven stopped working for card transactions on January 1, 2001, despite not having had any prior glitches. 7-Eleven reported the registers had been restored to complete functionality within two days.

In Multnomah County, Oregon, in early January approximately 3,000 residents received jury duty summonses for dates in 1901. Due to using two-digit years when entering the summons dates, courthouse employees had not seen that the computer had inaccurately rolled over the year.

Since 2000

Since 2000, various issues have occurred due to errors involving overflows. An issue with time tagging caused the destruction of the NASA Deep Impact spacecraft.

Some software used a process called date windowing to fix the issue by interpreting years 00-19 as 2000–2019 and 20–99 as 1920–1999. As a result, a new wave of problems started appearing in 2020, including parking meters in New York City refusing to accept credit cards, issues with Novitus point of sale units, and some utility companies printing bills listing the year 1920.

Government responses

Bulgaria

Although only two digits are allocated for the birth year in the Bulgarian national identification number, the year 1900 problem and subsequently the Y2K problem were addressed by the use of unused values above 12 in the month range. For all persons born before 1900, the month is stored as the calendar month plus 20, and for all persons born in or after 2000, the month is stored as the calendar month plus 40.

Canada

Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's most important cabinet ministers were ordered to remain in the capital Ottawa, and gathered at 24 Sussex Drive, the prime minister's residence, to watch the clock. 13,000 Canadian troops were also put on standby.

Netherlands

The Dutch Government promoted Y2K Information Sharing and Analysis Centers (ISACs) to share readiness between industries, without threat of antitrust violations or liability based on information shared.

Norway and Finland

Norway and Finland changed their national identification number, to indicate the century in which a person was born. In both countries, the birth year was historically indicated by two digits only. This numbering system had already given rise to a similar problem, the "Year 1900 problem", which arose due to problems distinguishing between people born in the 20th and 19th centuries. Y2K fears drew attention to an older issue, while prompting a solution to a new problem. In Finland, the problem was solved by replacing the hyphen ("-") in the number with the letter "A" for people born in the 21st century (for people born before 1900, the sign was already "+"). In Norway, the range of the individual numbers following the birth date was altered from 0–499 to 500–999.

Romania

Romania also changed its national identification number in response to the Y2K problem, due to the birth year being represented by only two digits. Before 2000, the first digit, which shows the person's gender, was 1 for males and 2 for females. Starting from 1 January 2000, the Romanian national identification number starts with 5 for males and 6 for females.

Uganda

The Ugandan government responded to the Y2K threat by setting up a Y2K Task Force. In August 1999 an independent international assessment by the World Bank International Y2k Cooperation Centre found that Uganda's website was in the top category as "highly informative". This put Uganda in the "top 20" out of 107 national governments, and on a par with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and Japan, and ahead of Germany, Italy, Austria, Switzerland which were rated as only "somewhat informative". The report said that "Countries which disclose more Y2K information will be more likely to maintain public confidence in their own countries and in the international markets."

United States

In 1998, the United States government responded to the Y2K threat by passing the Year 2000 Information and Readiness Disclosure Act, by working with private sector counterparts in order to ensure readiness, and by creating internal continuity of operations plans in the event of problems and set limits to certain potential liabilities of companies with respect to disclosures about their year 2000 program. The effort was coordinated by the President's Council on Year 2000 Conversion, headed by John Koskinen, in coordination with the then-independent Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and an interim Critical Infrastructure Protection Group, then in the Department of Justice, now in Homeland Security.

The US government followed a three-part approach to the problem: (1) outreach and advocacy, (2) monitoring and assessment, and (3) contingency planning and regulation.

A feature of US government outreach was Y2K websites including Y2K.GOV, many of which have become inaccessible in the years since 2000. Some of these websites have been archived by the National Archives and Records Administration or the Wayback Machine.

Each federal agency had its own Y2K task force which worked with its private sector counterparts; the FCC had the FCC Year 2000 Task Force.

Most industries had contingency plans that relied upon the internet for backup communications. As no federal agency had clear authority with regard to the internet at this time (it had passed from the US Department of Defense to the US National Science Foundation and then to the US Department of Commerce), no agency was assessing the readiness of the internet itself. Therefore, on 30 July 1999, the White House held the White House Internet Y2K Roundtable.

The U.S. government also established the Center for Year 2000 Strategic Stability as a joint operation with the Russian Federation. It was a liaison operation designed to mitigate the possibility of false positive readings in each nation's nuclear attack early warning systems.

International cooperation

The International Y2K Cooperation Center (IY2KCC) was established at the behest of national Y2K coordinators from over 120 countries when they met at the First Global Meeting of National Y2K Coordinators at the United Nations in December 1998. IY2KCC established an office in Washington, D.C. in March 1999. Funding was provided by the World Bank, and Bruce W. McConnell was appointed as director.

IY2KCC's mission was to "promote increased strategic cooperation and action among governments, peoples, and the private sector to minimize adverse Y2K effects on the global society and economy." Activities of IY2KCC were conducted in six areas:

National Readiness: Promoting Y2K programs worldwide

Regional Cooperation: Promoting and supporting co-ordination within defined geographic areas

Sector Cooperation: Promoting and supporting co-ordination within and across defined economic sectors

Continuity and Response Cooperation: Promoting and supporting co-ordination to ensure essential services and provisions for emergency response

Information Cooperation: Promoting and supporting international information sharing and publicity

Facilitation and Assistance: Organizing global meetings of Y2K coordinators and to identify resources

Private sector response

The United States established the Year 2000 Information and Readiness Disclosure Act, which limited the liability of businesses who had properly disclosed their Y2K readiness.

Insurance companies sold insurance policies covering failure of businesses due to Y2K problems.

Attorneys organized and mobilized for Y2K class action lawsuits (which were not pursued).

Survivalist-related businesses (gun dealers, surplus and sporting goods) anticipated increased business in the final months of 1999 in an event known as the Y2K scare.

The Long Now Foundation, which (in their words) "seeks to promote 'slower/better' thinking and to foster creativity in the framework of the next 10,000 years", has a policy of anticipating the Year 10,000 problem by writing all years with five digits. For example, they list "01996" as their year of founding.

While there was no one comprehensive internet Y2K effort, multiple internet trade associations and organizations banded together to form the Internet Year 2000 Campaign. This effort partnered with the White House's Internet Y2K Roundtable.

The Y2K issue was a major topic of discussion in the late 1990s and as such showed up in most popular media. A number of "Y2K disaster" books were published such as Deadline Y2K by Mark Joseph. Movies such as Y2K: Year to Kill capitalized on the currency of Y2K, as did numerous TV shows, comic strips, and computer games.

Fringe group responses

A variety of fringe groups and individuals such as those within some fundamentalist religious organizations, survivalists, cults, anti-social movements, self-sufficiency enthusiasts, communes and those attracted to conspiracy theories, embraced Y2K as a tool to engender fear and provide a form of evidence for their respective theories. End-of-the-world scenarios and apocalyptic themes were common in their communication.

Interest in the survivalist movement peaked in 1999 in its second wave for that decade, triggered by Y2K fears. In the time before extensive efforts were made to rewrite computer programming codes to mitigate the possible impacts, some writers such as Gary North, Ed Yourdon, James Howard Kunstler, and Ed Yardeni anticipated widespread power outages, food and gasoline shortages, and other emergencies. North and others raised the alarm because they thought Y2K code fixes were not being made quickly enough. While a range of authors responded to this wave of concern, two of the most survival-focused texts to emerge were Boston on Y2K (1998) by Kenneth W. Royce, and Mike Oehler's The Hippy Survival Guide to Y2K.

Y2K was also exploited by some fundamentalist and charismatic Christian leaders throughout the Western world, particularly in North America and Australia. Their promotion of the perceived risks of Y2K was combined with end times thinking and apocalyptic prophecies in an attempt to influence followers. The New York Times reported in late 1999, "The Rev. Jerry Falwell suggested that Y2K would be the confirmation of Christian prophecy — God's instrument to shake this nation, to humble this nation. The Y2K crisis might incite a worldwide revival that would lead to the rapture of the church. Along with many survivalists, Mr. Falwell advised stocking up on food and guns". Adherents in these movements were encouraged to engage in food hoarding, take lessons in self-sufficiency, and the more extreme elements planned for a total collapse of modern society. The Chicago Tribune reported that some large fundamentalist churches, motivated by Y2K, were the sites for flea market-like sales of paraphernalia designed to help people survive a social order crisis ranging from gold coins to wood-burning stoves. Betsy Hart, writing for the Deseret News, reported that a lot of the more extreme evangelicals used Y2K to promote a political agenda in which downfall of the government was a desired outcome in order to usher in Christ's reign. She also noted that, "the cold truth is that preaching chaos is profitable and calm doesn't sell many tapes or books". These types of fears and conspiracies were described dramatically by New Zealand-based Christian prophetic author and preacher Barry Smith in his publication, "I Spy with my Little Eye", where he dedicated a whole chapter to Y2K. Some expected, at times through so-called prophecies, that Y2K would be the beginning of a worldwide Christian revival.

It became clear in the aftermath that leaders of these fringe groups had used fears of apocalyptic outcomes to manipulate followers into dramatic scenes of mass repentance or renewed commitment to their groups, additional giving of funds and more overt commitment to their respective organizations or churches. The Baltimore Sun noted this in their article, "Apocalypse Now — Y2K spurs fears", where they reported the increased call for repentance in the populace in order to avoid God's wrath. Christian leader, Col Stringer, in his commentary has published, "Fear-creating writers sold over 45 million books citing every conceivable catastrophe from civil war, planes dropping from the sky to the end of the civilized world as we know it. Reputable preachers were advocating food storage and a "head for the caves" mentality. No banks failed, no planes crashed, no wars or civil war started. And yet not one of these prophets of doom has ever apologized for their scare-mongering tactics." Some prominent North American Christian ministries and leaders generated huge personal and corporate profits through sales of Y2K preparation kits, generators, survival guides, published prophecies and a wide range of other associated merchandise. Christian journalist, Rob Boston, has documented this in his article "False Prophets, Real Profits — Religious Right Leaders' Wild Predictions of Y2K Disaster Didn't Come True, But They Made Money Anyway".

Cost

The total cost of the work done in preparation for Y2K is estimated at over US$300 billion ($472 billion as of January 2018, once inflation is taken into account). IDC calculated that the US spent an estimated $134 billion ($211 billion) preparing for Y2K, and another $13 billion ($20 billion) fixing problems in 2000 and 2001. Worldwide, $308 billion ($485 billion) was estimated to have been spent on Y2K remediation.

Remedial work organization

The remedial work was driven by customer demand for solutions. Software suppliers, mindful of their potential legal liability, responded with remedial effort. Software subcontractors were required to certify that their software components were free of date-related problems, which drove further work down the supply chain.

By 1999, many corporations required their suppliers to certify, often on their own variation of a basic form, that all of their software is Y2K compliant. Some merely accepted remedial updates and then signed. Many businesses or even whole countries who spent little effort themselves nonetheless suffered only minor problems.

Results

There are two ways to view the events of 2000 from the perspective of its aftermath:

Supporting view

This view holds that the vast majority of problems were fixed correctly, and the money spent was at least partially justified. The situation was essentially one of preemptive alarm. Those who hold this view claim that the lack of problems at the date change reflects the completeness of the project, and that many computer applications would not have continued to function into the 21st century without correction or remediation.

Expected problems that were not seen by small businesses and small organizations were prevented by Y2K fixes embedded in routine updates to operating system and utility software that were applied several years before 31 December 1999.

The extent to which larger industry and government fixes averted issues that would have more significant impacts had they not been fixed, were typically not disclosed or widely reported.

It has been suggested that on 11 September 2001, infrastructure in New York City (including subways, phone service, and financial transactions) was able to continue operation because of the redundant networks established in the event of Y2K bug impact and the contingency plans devised by companies. The terrorist attacks and the following prolonged blackout to lower Manhattan had minimal effect on global banking systems. Backup systems were activated at various locations around the region, many of which had been established to deal with a possible complete failure of networks in Manhattan's Financial District on 31 December 1999.

Opposing view

The contrary view asserts that there were no, or very few, critical problems to begin with. This view also asserts that there would have been only a few minor mistakes and that a "fix on failure" approach would have been the most efficient and cost-effective way to solve these problems as they occurred.

International Data Corporation estimated that the US might have wasted $40 billion.

Skeptics of the need for a massive effort pointed to the absence of Y2K-related problems occurring before 1 January 2000, even though the 2000 financial year commenced in 1999 in many jurisdictions, and a wide range of forward-looking calculations involved dates in 2000 and later years. Estimates undertaken in the lead-up to 2000 suggested that around 25% of all problems should have occurred before 2000. Critics of large-scale remediation argued during 1999 that the absence of significant reported problems in non-compliant small firms was evidence that there had been, and would be, no serious problems needing to be fixed in any firm, and that the scale of the problem had therefore been severely overestimated.

Countries such as South Korea and Russia invested little to nothing in Y2K remediation, yet had the same negligible Y2K problems as countries that spent enormous sums of money. Western countries anticipated such severe problems in Russia that many issued travel advisories and evacuated non-essential staff.

Critics also cite the lack of Y2K-related problems in schools, many of which undertook little or no remediation effort. By 1 September 1999, only 28% of US schools had achieved compliance for mission critical systems, and a government report predicted that "Y2K failures could very well plague the computers used by schools to manage payrolls, student records, online curricula, and building safety systems".

Similarly, there were few Y2K-related problems in an estimated 1.5 million small businesses that undertook no remediation effort. On 3 January 2000 (the first weekday of the year), the Small Business Administration received an estimated 40 calls from businesses with computer issues, similar to the average. None of the problems were critical.

Notes

The name 'IBM' 1401 reflected the smallest amount of memory: 1,400 characters.

 

Sullivan Institute: Saul Newton & Jana Pearce

Saul B. Newton (June 25, 1906 – December 21, 1991) was a controversial psychotherapist who led an unorthodox therapy group in New York City. It had no formal name, but outsiders referred to members as "The Sullivanians".

Background

Newton's original family name was Cohen. He was born in Saint John, New Brunswick, and attended the University of Wisconsin.

Career

Newton went on to Chicago, where he associated with radical circles at the University of Chicago, becoming a communist and anti-fascist. He served with the Mackenzie–Papineau Battalion of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade in the Spanish Civil War (as Saul Bernard Cohen). and with the U.S. Army in World War II by draft in 1943. He went on to study psychotherapy after the war. Newton retained a dual focus on politics and psychology throughout his life.

In 1957, Newton and his wife, Dr. Jane Pearce, founded the Sullivan Institute for Research in Psychoanalysis in New York. They had previously worked at the William Alanson White Institute, but left several years after the death of Harry Stack Sullivan, one of the White Institute's founders. Although Newton and Pearce's institute was named after Sullivan, it was widely seen as offering a distorted version of Sullivan's teaching.

The Institute's teachings held that traditional family ties were the root cause of mental illness, and espoused a non-monogamous lifestyle. During the 1960s, an informal community centered on the therapeutic practices of the Institute began to form. (Judy Collins chronicles her time with the Sullivanians in her autobiography.). At its peak, in the late 1970s, this community had several hundred members (patients and therapists) living on the Upper West Side. The group gained some notoriety, not only for its non-monogamous lifestyle, but because patients were often encouraged to sever ties with their families.

A major project was the Fourth Wall Repertory Company (a.k.a. 'Fourth Wall Political Theater'), which performed from roughly 1976 to 1991. It was based in New York's East Village. Newton was a board member, and performed in several productions. Newton was also a producer of several documentaries directed by Joan Harvey, Newton's fifth wife, an actress and psychoanalyst.

Membership declined in the late 1980s when the group was subject to unfavorable publicity, investigations into alleged professional misconduct by its therapists, high-profile child custody cases (Paul Sprecher vs. Dee Dee Agee and Michael Bray vs. Alice Dobosh) and organized opposition by disaffected former members who described the group as a "psychotherapy cult".

Newton was married and divorced six times and had ten children, among them cultural anthropologist Esther Newton. He died in 1991 from sepsis, following the onset of Alzheimer's disease.

Works

Conditions of Human Growth (with Jane Pearce). Citadel Press, 1986, ISBN 0-8065-0177-4.

 

The Holy Rollers: Franz Edmund Creffield

Franz Edmund Creffield, commonly known as Edmund Creffield and by the pseudonym Joshua (c. 1870–1906), was a German-American religious leader who founded a movement in Corvallis, Oregon, that became known locally as the "Holy Rollers". The movement, mainly popular among women, was widely regarded as a cult. Creffield, who believed himself the second coming of Jesus, had a number of run-ins with the authorities and the local citizenry over the next several years, often stemming from his relations with his female followers and his increasingly erratic behavior.

In 1906 Creffield was murdered by George Mitchell, whose sister was one of Creffield's followers. After being acquitted of wrongdoing in the killing, Mitchell was himself murdered by his sister in revenge, with another follower subsequent died by suicide. The story attracted national attention and was major news for a time in the Pacific Northwest.

Early life

Franz Edmund Creffield was originally from Germany; it is unclear how he came to Oregon. He first appeared in Portland in 1903, and he quickly became involved in the Salvation Army. Later that year he was sent on mission to the town of Corvallis. Soon after, he broke with the Salvation Army and formed his own group, which he called the Bride of Christ Church. Townspeople regarded the church as a cult and called them "Holy Rollers" because they rolled on the floor for hours during their services.

Bride of Christ Church

Creffield did not say anything outrageous when he first came to Corvallis in 1903, preaching mostly about "the beauty of the full Gospel." Soon his followers believed he was receiving messages directly from God. Creffield preached for hours on end and his followers loudly rolled on the floor pleading for God's forgiveness. When their cacophonous meetings began running into the early morning hours, Creffield was barred from holding services within city limits.

During the summer he and his followers camped out on Kiger Island in the Willamette River. When the fall rains started Sarah Hurt and her three children, Maud, Frank, and Mae, some of his most ardent followers, invited him and about twenty others to move into their house just outside Corvallis. In October the group burned most of the house’s contents including furniture, utensils, heirlooms, a cat, and a dog. Reports that a baby had been sacrificed were false.

People soon began to ask if Creffield could really "live in the same locked house with a number of young girls, and do nothing in the world but be religious."

In January 1904, twenty vigilantes called the White Caps tarred and feathered Creffield, and told him to leave town and never come back. The next day Creffield and Maud Hurt were married in a room where "the odor of [pine] tar was noticeable."

In February Creffield was accused of having adulterous relations in Portland with Maud’s aunt, Donna Starr. Adultery was a criminal offense, so a warrant was put out for his arrest. A statewide manhunt went on for months. Meanwhile, many of his followers fasted and spent their days lying flat on the floor praying. Most were committed to either the Oregon State Insane Asylum or the Boys and Girls Aid Society in Portland.

In July, one month after Sarah Hurt was committed, Creffield was discovered nude and starving under her house. Creffield said he was innocent, but was found guilty and served seventeen months in the Oregon State Penitentiary. When released, he claimed he was Jesus Christ risen from the dead, his resurrection being his emergence from prison.

Creffield said he was responsible for the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and his followers, all of whom had been released from the asylum, believed him. "Creffield is Jesus Christ," Cora Hartley said. "He condemned the city of San Francisco and brought the earthquake; he has condemned the city of Corvallis and an earthquake will destroy this place." She and the others obeyed his order to evacuate to the coast.

Assassination

In April, Louis Hartley, a wealthy mine owner, followed his wife, Cora, and daughter, Sophie, when they went to Newport to meet up with Creffield and the others. As the group boarded a ferry, Hartley fired a revolver four times at Creffield. The gun snapped harmlessly because the center-fire cartridges were wrong for the rim-fire gun.

Others were also gunning for Creffield, so he fled to Seattle with Maud. There, George Mitchell, Esther's brother, found him and, in front of witnesses, killed him.

Multnomah County’s district attorney, John Manning, sent King County’s prosecuting attorney, Kenneth Mackintosh, a letter saying, "I investigated many, many charges against him [Creffield] while he was on his Holy Rolling tour in Oregon, the character of which were perfectly awful, in so far as being low, degenerate and brutal, and if permitted, I would like an opportunity to testify before the grand jury, before Mitchell is indicted … I think the taking of the law in one’s own hands, under such circumstances, to mete out summary justice is almost excusable.". Mackintosh was appalled by Manning’s suggestion.

O.V. Hurt, Creffield's father-in-law, hired one of the best law firms in Seattle to defend George. Numerous witnesses testified to telling George that "free love" took place in 1903. They said they told George that Creffield preached that Christ would be reborn and one of the Brides of Christ would be the new Mary and that he needed to lay his hands upon them and purify them. They said they told George that mothers were debauched in front of their daughters, including Sarah and her then sixteen-year-old daughter, Mae. They said they told George that finally Creffield announced that the new Mary was Esther Mitchell, the then sixteen-year-old sister of George.

Many believe that much of the testimony was perjury, a tactic to avoid hearsay and put Creffield on trial. George was found not guilty by reason of insanity and released. Two days later, Esther shot and killed him using a gun Maud bought using their witness fees.

O.V. was devastated, but still loved his daughter so he hired the same lawyers who had defended George, to defend her. Before the case went to trial, Maud committed suicide. Esther was found not guilty by reason of insanity and committed to Western State Hospital, an asylum in Steilacoom, Washington.

Esther was released from the asylum in 1909. She died by suicide in 1914.

 

House of Yahweh: Yisrayl Hawkins

The House of Yahweh (HOY) is a religious group based in Eula, Texas. The assembly has been controversial and is referred to as a cult by former members.

Founder

Yisrayl Hawkins (also known as "Buffalo Bill" Hawkins) is HOY's founder. In 1974, his brother, J. G. (Yaaqob) Hawkins, returned from a seven-year visit to Israel claiming he had "found proof of Yahweh's name". Shortly after, he formed the "first House of Yahweh" in Odessa, Texas. He preached distinct doctrines that his brother agreed with, such as the necessity of referring to the Creator as Yahweh and the Messiah as Yahshua, as well as following the Torah and the Jewish festivals.

In 1980, Hawkins legally changed his first name to Yisrayl, and began The House of Yahweh Abilene at his home. Hawkins says he and his brother were prophesied in both the Old and New Testaments as the two witnesses, sent by Yahweh to prepare the world for the Second Coming of Yahshua the Messiah.

Hawkins has written numerous books concerning Yahweh's laws and prophecies. Some are The Mark of the Beast Vol. 1 & 2, The Lost Faith of the Apostles and Prophets, Deceptions Concerning Yahweh's Calendar Of Events, Devil Worship: The Shocking Facts!, Unveiling Satan!, The End, In Search of a Savior, There Is Someone Out There, The Two Witnesses, and The Peaceful Solution. Hawkins was the primary editor of The Book of Yahweh: The Holy Scriptures, now in its 10th edition, which is, according to the House of Yahweh "the most correct and accurate translation of the Holy Scriptures that is available today." With its use of the name Yahweh throughout the New Testament, it fits into the category of sacred name Bibles.

Hawkins died on 8 October 2021.

Beliefs

The House of Yahweh believes that it is the oldest and only true faith, as instituted by Yahweh, according to the Bible. Many of the groups teachings are similar to those of Herbert W. Armstrong and the Sabbatarian Churches of God.

Similar to Armstrongism, the HOY believes the world will soon experience the Great Tribulation and that the Bible refers to Satan as the god of this world, and that "she" has the entire world deceived.

HOY believes Yahweh is the name of the creator of the world, and that Yahshua is the name of the Son of Yahweh, and that he is their messiah. They teach that any other titles—such as God (El, Elohim), Lord (Ba'al, Adonai), Jehovah, Jesus and Christ—are names or titles of pagan beings or idols, or are mistakes, that have been falsely ascribed to Yahweh.

Its beliefs are also similar to those of Judaism, as the assembly follows the Torah, the 613 laws and rules found in the Pentateuch. They believe the observance of these laws promotes peace and love, and is an answer to many problems in the world.

Members adhere to a kosher diet, strictly following the dietary laws in Leviticus 11, and wear garments similar to the Jewish yarmulke and tallit in worship services and private prayer.

Members regularly perform ritual ablutions, and are baptized when they join the assembly.

HOY instructs its members to tithe 10% of all their increases as said in the Bible.

Feasts

Like Judaism and Armstrongism, HOY keeps the seventh-day Sabbath and the annual feasts of the Old Testament, including Passover, the Feast of Unleavened Bread, Pentecost, The Feast of Trumpets, and The Feast of Tabernacles, as well as the fast-day called The Day of Atonement.

Once a year on the evening before Passover, members hold a solemn observance they call "Yahshua's Memorial" in memory of the crucifixion of Jesus. The assembly shares unleavened bread and wine as symbols of the body and blood of Yahshua, and members wash one another's feet. The following evening, the assembly celebrates Passover.

Christmas, Easter, and birthdays are not celebrated, as they believe they are pagan rituals and customs in observance of gods.

Unlike Judaism and Armstrongism, HOY believes The House of Yahweh Sanctuary in Eula, Texas is the only place on earth where celebratory feasts are to be observed, and three times a year they make a pilgrimage to Abilene to celebrate Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles.

Rejection of Trinitarianism

Unlike Trinitarian Christianity, the House of Yahweh teaches that Yahshua (Jesus) was born a man, and became the son of Yahweh, "the firstborn among many brothers", when he was baptized by John the Baptist. They believe that he was framed for insurrection, received an illegal trial, and was then flogged, tormented, nailed to a pole (not a cross) and executed by the civil authorities. Similar to Christianity, they teach that he died for the sins of man as an atonement offering or blood sacrifice, and in so doing he became a Passover Lamb. The House of Yahweh teaches that he was buried at sunset, and three days later, he was resurrected from the dead, subsequently ascending into Heaven 40 days later. They believe that he is waiting until the prophesied end time to return to Earth, establishing Yahweh's Kingdom on Earth and preventing humankind from ultimately destroying themselves.

Yahweh's exclusivity

According to the assembly, Yahweh is the only one who deserves worship or adoration, and is the sovereign and only creator and ruler of the universe. Yahshua is not believed to be a divine being, and is not thought to preexist before his conception. They believe that the Holy Spirit in the original scriptures is "The every word of Yahweh, the Law and the Prophets".

Unlike either Judaism or Christianity, and similarly to Armstrongism, they make no distinction between the Old Testament and the New Testament, claiming the New Testament is a continuation of the Old Testament, reaffirming and reestablishing it. In addition, the House of Yahweh rejects religious customs that conflict with their interpretation of the Torah.

In an attempt to purify their religion of pagan elements, all pagan names, words, and concepts are eschewed. They also publish an edition of the Bible (The Book of Yahweh), which removes any and all words or concepts which they believe are pagan corruptions, including removal of God/Elohim in favor of Yahweh, as well as changing names to remove these influences (e.g. Yliyah for Elijah, Yechetzqyah for Ezekiel, Riyyah for Ruth, and Yahchanan for John).

Failed "end times" predictions

1999–In a Channel 4 documentary entitled Welcome to Armegeddon, Hawkins stated: "Four fifths of the world's population is going to be wiped out between now and about the middle of the year 2002. Mark it on your calendar. Four fifths of the world's population." When the interviewer asked: "What if what you're saying doesn't happen?", Hawkins replied: "There is no possibility that it could not take place just as I have told you."

September 12, 2006–Hawkins announced in the House of Yahweh newsletter (February 2006) that a nuclear war would begin on September 12, 2006. He claimed that it was a part of HOY's commission to warn the nations and the people of the world. Hawkins was interviewed on the Channel 4 web show "thisisaknife" about his apocalyptic predictions. Among other things, he claimed that Abilene, Texas, would be saved from the impending destruction, and invited the show's presenter to join him there so he would be safe.

Kenyan followers of the House of Yahweh believe that the end of the world began on or before September 12, 2006, and that members of the House Of Yahweh would have survived the coming nuclear catastrophe. The specific prophecy appeared on the front page of HOY's website prior to the date. It is also addressed in the publication The End by Yisrayl Hawkins. Recently the leaders of the sect in Kenya were arrested, and subsequently released on bail after giving assurances that they would refrain from inciting fear in the local population. Following the predicted doomsday date predicted by the Kenyan sect, leaders of the group have reportedly fled Kenya.

June 12, 2007–Hawkins amended his prediction to state that a nuclear war was only conceived on September 12, 2006, and that it would follow the natural birth cycle of a woman, finally being "born" nine months later on June 12, 2007. On May 7, 2007, a new counter was put up on his website, counting down to the June 12 birth date of the "Nuclear Baby". Whether the entire nuclear event was to take place on that date, or in the months leading up to it as well, was never made clear. He also stated that by October 13, 2007, four-fifths or 80% of the human race would be dead from nuclear war.

June 12, 2008–Hawkins stated that nuclear war would begin on June 12, 2008. Since the passing of this date without incident, Hawkins has yet to predict another date for a nuclear war.

December 24, 2016–The group claimed that nuclear destruction would occur before Christmas 2016, so members attended and watched, but nothing happened.

Cover of Birth Of The Nuclear Baby: The Explosion Of Sin

In the book Birth Of the Nuclear Baby: The Explosion Of Sin, the group claims that nuclear war did start on September 12, 2006, but that it did not start with bombs dropping.

Legal issues

In October 2006, a former HOY member pleaded guilty to injury to a child by criminal negligence for performing surgery on her seven-year-old daughter, which led to her death, according to authorities.

On October 16, 2007, Yedidiyah Hawkins, an Elder at HOY, was arrested for sexual assault of his fourteen-year-old stepdaughter. During a forensic interview at the Abilene Police Department's Child Advocacy Center, the child disclosed that the abuse began when she was eight. Documents released by the Callahan County District Attorney's Office following the arrest allege that Hawkins was preparing to marry the unnamed stepdaughter, although the group says that was not true. He was subsequently indicted by a Callahan County, Texas Grand Jury on December 12, 2007. On October 27, 2008, a jury for the 42nd District Court found him guilty of aggravated sexual assault of a child. The judge sentenced him to 30 years in prison. A motion for a new trial was rejected by a 42nd District Court judge on February 18, 2009. Several other charges are pending until all appeals have been exhausted.

On February 12, 2008, Yisrayl Hawkins was arrested and then moved to the Taylor County Jail on four counts of bigamy. His bail was set at $10 million, later reduced to $100,000. On October 29, 2009, bigamy charges against him were dismissed after he, following what he believes is the example of the savior, pleaded no contest to child labor charges. Hawkins was given a fine and probation.

 

Happy Science:Ryuho Okawa

Ryuho Okawa (大川 隆法; Ōkawa Ryūhō; born Takashi Nakagawa (中川 隆; Nakagawa Takashi) on July 7, 1956) is the CEO and founder of the Happy Science religious organization and the Happiness Realization Party in Japan. He is also chairman of two companies affiliated with the organization, New Star Production and ARI Production.

His organization has been widely criticised as a cult. Adherents of the religion worship Okawa, who claims to be the current incarnation of a god called "El Cantare" and a number of other beings, including Hermes and Gautama Buddha.

Early life

Ryuho Okawa was born Takashi Nakagawa on 7 July 1956 in Kawashima (now Yoshinogawa), Tokushima Prefecture as the second son of Tadayoshi Nakagawa (中川 忠義, Nakagawa Tadayoshi) (1921 – 2003) (later known by his pen name[8] Saburō Yoshikawa (善川 三朗, Yoshikawa Saburō)) and Kimiko Nakagawa (中川 君子, Nakagawa Kimiko). His older brother is named Tsutomu Nakagawa (中川 力, Nakagawa Tsutomu) (born 1952) (later known as Makoto Tomiyama (富山 誠, Tomiyama Makoto)).

Okawa said his family was religious; both of his parents believed in God and the Buddha, and Okawa believed in the existence of spirits and souls, and a world after death in childhood. Despite his beliefs, Okawa was not active in religious practice. Okawa and Tomiyama lived were raised in a strict home environment that was ordinary and not particularly rich nor poor.

Yoshikawa is said to be one of the most important influences on Okawa's life. Okawa said, despite not having a spiritual or religious master, Yoshikawa had an important influence. Yoshikawa edited journals for the Japanese Communist Party and later worked as an agricultural advisor in local government. He was deeply interested in spirituality and religion. He studied in the Christian Church as a teenager, as well as in a new religion called Seicho-no-Ie after World War II. He later became a follower of Shinji Takahashi, leader of the religious organization God Light Association (GLA). He would also later serve as Happy Science's official adviser in its first few years. Yoshikawa was demanding on Okawa's success. Yoshikawa gave him and Tomiyama hour-long lectures after dinner at home. The lectures included religious topics like the Bible and The Gateless Barrier, as well as secular topics like Kantian philosophy and Marxism during elementary school, although Okawa was not successful in school.

Okawa wanted to be a scholar or a diplomat. He wanted to spread his ideas in academia, or broaden his view on life by experiencing different cultures as a diplomat. Because of this prospect, he started studying until late at night and became amongst the top of his class. He became particularly good at English. He was obese, weighing 60 kg when he was 143 cm tall.

During secondary school, Okawa was an active student. He fished, played tennis, and practiced kendo. He was involved in school activities; he was president of the student union and editor of the school newspaper.

Career

Education

In 1975, Okawa failed the entrance exam for Tokyo University. After studying for a year, he was accepted into the university's Liberal Arts Division. During his first year, he was not socially adjusted. He said he once wrote love letters to a girl, but was rejected. He felt uncomfortable amongst the students who were uninterested in spirituality. During his second year, a time he calls "the first stage in the 'awakening of wisdom'", he modeled his daily schedule after that of Immanuel Kant, whom he respected deeply. At 3 pm, he would take a walk while writing poetry. At 5 pm, he would go to the local bathhouse and stay there for an hour thinking about his day. Going home, he would have a cheap meal, and buy two books at a local bookstore. From 8:30 to 9 pm, he would read, then drink tea, and then read philosophy. The philosophy he read included those of Plato and Kitaro Nishida.

In April 1978, after his second year at university, he majored in politics and studied at the Faculty of Law. After his third year, he paused his studies for a year. At the end of the break, he failed a judicial exam and the exam for higher-level civil servants. In his fourth and last year, his interests started to change from philosophy to metaphysics. He read the works of Shinji Takahashi of GLA and Masaharu Taniguchi of Seicho-no-Ie. He accepted a job offer from TOMEN Corporation (now Toyota Tsusho), a major Japanese trading company, because his grades were not sufficient for graduate school. After graduating in spring 1981, he took up his job. He was assigned to the foreign exchange department at the headquarters in Tokyo.

Spiritual contacts

On 23 March 1981, before graduating from university and working at TOMEN Corporation, Okawa said he experienced his "Buddha Enlightenment", his first contact with a high divine spirit. This spirit is believed to be that of Nikkō Shōnin, who was one of Nichiren's disciples.[17] On that day, he had a sudden feeling that a person was trying to communicate with him. He grabbed a pencil and a card. His hand started to move on its own, and wrote "良い知らせ、良い知らせ"　(good news, good news). Asking who the person is, his hand signed "日興", the name of Nikkō. A week later, the spirit of Nichiren started contacting Okawa. They then communicated every day from March to July 1981, when he was working at TOMEN. Okawa asked the spirit what mission he should pursue in life. The spirit replied "Love others, nurture others, and forgive others". This message later became the basis of Okawa's teachings about love.

In June 1981, the religious leader Shinji Takahashi's spirit told Okawa his destiny to found a new religion. His father Yoshikawa, upon hearing of this, went to Tokyo, later becoming one of his followers. The next month, the spirits spoke through Okawa, including those of Kūkai, Shinran, Confucius, Jesus Christ, Moses, and Nostradamus. Yoshikawa and Tomiyama taped the communications. The tapes were interviews between the interviewing Yoshikawa and the spirits. Okawa acted as a spiritual medium and answered Yoshikawa's questions. The tapes were transcribed and adapted into publishable formats by Yoshikawa. Yoshikawa's help allowed Okawa to continue working as a businessman at TOMEN Corporation. Without his help, Happy Science could possibly have started differently and at a later date, or even not have been founded at all. The spiritual messages were given to the publisher Chōbunsha (潮文社) because they specialized in spiritual works.

Okawa published a vast number of spiritual messages from various spirits in order to prove the existence of the Spirit World to the public. His first thirteen books, published from 1985 to 1987, consisted of these spiritual messages; the first eight were published from 1985 to 1986 under Yoshikawa's pen name to avoid Okawa's authorship being found out by his employers. The first book, The Spiritual Messages of Nichiren (日蓮の霊言, Nichiren no reigen), was published on 15 August 1985. The last two spiritual messages were published in early 1991: The Great Warning of Allah (アラーの大警, Arā no dai-keikoku) (January 1991) and The Terrifying Revelations of Nostradamus (ノストラダムス戦慄の啓示, Nosutoradamusu senritsu no keiji) (February 1991). Both became best-sellers in Japan in 1991. After 1991, almost all spiritual message books were discontinued aside from the messages of Buddha.

The books of spiritual messages were replaced with newer versions when Okawa started publishing under his own name after the foundation of Happy Science. The new books were akin to collected and revised versions of the originals. They are presented as religious tractates which are divided into chapters, rather than interviews between Yoshikawa and the spirits.

Okawa told his readers to not let foreigners read the spiritual messages and to not translate the messages into English, Chinese, or Korean. He says that foreigners should not know about the messages "until the time is ripe." and that propagating them overseas would "only heighten the fear." Astley (1995) says the real reason Okawa discouraged readers from spreading the messages abroad may be because the messages seem to contain a large amount of plagiarism.

As the spirits continued talking to Okawa, he eventually realized that he is a reincarnation of Guatama Buddha, and the incarnation of the Highest Spiritual Being named El Cantare. Okawa believes that this was revealed to him by the consciousness of Guatama Buddha. This revelation convinced him that his mission was to spread Truth on earth.

Business career

Okawa's life as a businessman went normally despite his communication with the spirits, which continued throughout his business career. In August 1982, Okawa was sent to the company's US headquarters at the World Trade Center in New York for training. He took an English course at Berlitz Language School and he studied international finance at the City University of New York. He dropped out of university after experiencing an intensified inferiority complex from seeing a Taiwanese classmate who spoke fluent English. Around this time, he said he experienced the "second stage in the 'awakening of wisdom'". His inferiority complex went away when he thought about the knowledge he obtained from the over three thousand books he read thus far. In 1983, he returned to Tokyo, and was assigned to work on negotiations with banks. In March 1984, he was sent to Nagoya. By summer of 1985, he had read over four thousand books. Thoughts "spewed forth like water from a spring", and his inferiority complex changed into a sense of superiority.

Okawa earned a particular reputation at his work, where rumours about him spread. His former colleagues said he claimed to see spirits possessing people and offered to exorce them. In June 1986, high spirits suggested he retire from work, leading him to dedicate his life to religion. On 15 July, he resigned from TOMEN Corporation and on October 6, founded Happy Science and adopted the name "Ryuho Okawa".

Happy Science

Study group

On 6 October 1986, Okawa opened the first office for Happy Science in Suginami, Tokyo, with four staff members. Happy Science's initial name was Jinsei no Daigaku-in: Kofuku-no-Kagaku (人生の大学院 幸福の科学) ("Happy Science, The Postgraduate School of Human Life"). The name "幸福の科学" originates from inspiration that Okawa said he received from Nichiren's spirit; the details were published in Okawa's first book Nichiren no reigen in 1985. At first, the organization presented itself as a "study group on human happiness" and consisted of readers and sympathizers of Okawa's spiritual works, who were friends and acquaintances of Okawa. However, the organization may have intended to be known as a religious body later.

On 23 November 1986, Okawa gave his first sermon to about 80 followers in Tokyo. This date is now known as one of the most important dates in Happy Science's history. It is known as the day of Shoten-bōrin (初転法輪, Shoten-bōrin) ("The First Turn of the Wheel of the Dharma").

In March 1987, Okawa gave what is known as his first official large public lecture, entitled "The Principles of Happiness", to an audience of about 400 people. In the lecture, he implied that he was a prophet, saying that while spiritual mediums and psychics cannot hear the voice of God, prophets can. He said that a prophet's task is to listen to the voice and spread the word of God. He stated that the early years of Happy Science would consist of study.

In June 1987, a new series of books, called the "law" (法, hō) series, launched. The first three books, The Laws of the Sun (太陽の法, Taiyō no hō), The Golden Laws (黄金の法, Ōgon no hō), and The Laws of Eternity (永遠の法, Eien no hō), published from June to October, may be seen as the fundamental doctrinal text of Happy Science. The three books are collectively called "The Trilogy of Salvation" (救世の三部作, Kyūsei no Sambu-saku). They were originally presented as the final revelations of the Buddha. The Laws of the Sun is the first book in which Okawa explained his own point of view and his teachings. While Okawa had published books before, they were all spiritual messages that came from spirits, not Okawa. The book contains "the core of [Happy Science]'s doctrine" and is "the starting point of its salvation movement". The book also contains an account of Okawa's early life. The Golden Laws is dedicated to "time and history in relation to the Truth". The Laws of Eternity focuses on the structure of the spirit world, which The Laws of Sun also covers, but the book explains it in greater detail. Each book in the trilogy has a subtitle which mentions the shaka. The subtitles would be changed in future editions following changes in Happy Science's doctrine.

At the end of 1989, with the publication of The Rebirth of the Buddha, Okawa officially declared that he is an incarnation of Buddha. His teachings were re-interpreted in light of this revelation. The doctrine of Happy Science was interpreted to be fundamentally Buddhist.

Okawa's audience at his lectures grew larger as Happy Science gained new members. The initial audience of 400 at his lecture in 1987 grew to 10,000 by 1990. The organization grew rapidly. In December 1989, the headquarters was moved to one of the most expensive business buildings in Tokyo in Kioichō, Chiyoda, next to Tokyo's main business and political area. The rent was known to be ¥25 million per month.

Religious organization

On 7 March 1991, Happy Science obtained legal status as a "religious juridical person" (宗教法人, shūkyō-hōjin)　through the Religious Corporations Law by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. As a result, its name was simplified to Kofuku-no-Kagaku (幸福の科学, Kōfuku-no-Kagaku). The group's government recognition allowed it to gradually grow by taking on new members from the general Japanese public. In that year, Happy Science started large-scale festivities. One of these was Okawa's "Birthday Festival" (御生誕祭, Goseitan-sai), held on 15 July 1991, just after Okawa's 35th birthday. In the festival, Okawa was in front of an audience of 50,000 people, which included the mass media, in Tokyo Dome. He declared that he now had at least 1.5 million followers and that his real identity is "El Cantare", the Grand Spirit of the Terrestrial Spirit Group, also known as the "Buddha of Mahayana". El Cantare was revealed to have several reincarnations prior to the Buddha and Okawa.

In May 1994, a doctrinal shift occurred. Old publications were revised to reflect the new concept of El Cantare. This included an updated version of the Trilogy of Salvation, which was called the "new" (新, shin) series. Each book in the trilogy had its subtitle revised, which now refers explicitly to El Cantare's name rather than the shaka as with the original versions. The revised version of The Laws of the Sun contains a different account of Okawa's early life compared to the original version. The new edition also contains a list of El Cantare's previous reincarnations.

Since the founding of Happy Science, Okawa has reportedly published over 500 books, most of which are transcripts of his video recorded lectures. There are 15 films based on his teachings: The Laws of the Sun, The Laws of Eternity, The Golden Laws, The Terrifying Revelations of Nostradamus, Hermes - Winds of Love, The Rebirth of Buddha, The Mystical Laws, The Final Judgement, The Laws of the Universe, I'm Fine My Angel, The World We Live In, and Daybreak.

Organization

Fukui (2004) notes that Okawa's leadership is consistent with sociologist Max Weber's theory about charismatic authority. Okawa's leadership comes from belief in his supernatural traits, as he identifies as the Buddha and El Cantare. Under his authority, Happy Science has undergone rapid changes, including changes in its projects, doctrine, and staff, who do not remain in the same post for a long time. Fukui (2004) says, citing Wallis (1983), that rapid change allows a charismatic leader to stay in power. Rapid change protects the leader from vulnerability stemming from disbelief in their supernatural claims, routinization, or dissenting leaders.

Since its founding, Happy Science has been organized like a secular company. This is reflected in titles of positions, which are secular. Okawa's original title was "Coordinator" or "Chairman" (主宰, Shusai), with followers referring to Okawa as "Master Coordinator" (主宰先生, Shusai Sensei). In January 1997, with the inception of the "New Hope Project", Okawa's title was changed to "President" (総裁, Sōsai) and Okawa is called "Master President" (総裁先生, Sōsai Sensei) by members. Under Okawa, a Board of Directors, which manages Happy Science, and the Heads of Divisions exist. Branch offices (支部, shibu) exist in and outside of Japan, with each office run by a branch manager (支部長, shibu-chō). Fukui (2004) says, when visiting the headquarters' offices in Tokyo, it was difficult to "tell the difference between [Happy Science]'s offices and those of a business corporation." Most staff members were wearing business suits and doing paperwork at their desks. The usual office equipment are seen as well, such as telephones, fax machines, filing cabinets, photocopiers, and computers. Fukui (2004) says "apart from the presence of the gohonzon (the religious icon of worship) within the office of each division, it felt as though I was visiting a major trading house." Although the employees are shukke-sha (出家者, shukke-sha) (i.e. "renouncers who have left their secular lives"), they spent a considerable amount of time working in the office.

Happy Science has been widely criticised as a cult.

Role as Buddha and El Cantare

In Happy Science, Okawa is known as the Buddha, both the Enlightened One and the reincarnation of Guatama Buddha, and the embodiment of El Cantare, the Grand Spirit of the Terrestrial Spirit Group, called Lord El Cantare within Happy Science. The name "El Cantare" means "beautiful land of light, Earth". El Cantare is also known as the "Eternal Buddha". This Buddha is related to the Creator God, known as the "Primordial Buddha". Many members believe Okawa is an incarnation of the Creator. Okawa is believed to have many past incarnations. These include a king named La Mu on the continent Mu, a king named Thoth on the continent Atlantis, a king named Rient Arl Croud in the Inca Empire located in ancient South America, Ophealis in archaic Greece, Hermes in ancient Greece, and the Buddha in India.

As El Cantare, Okawa is the main figure of worship in Happy Science. Members have faith in El Cantare. Their worship gives them "comfort, energy, courage, hope, steadiness, and a sense of being guided and looked after." The organization's object of worship (御本尊, gohonzon) has a photo of Okawa as El Cantare. El Cantare is said to have chosen to be incarnated in Japan because both Eastern and Western civilizations are merged there. When the two civilizations coexist harmoniously, an element of the Utopia would be realized. Thus Japan is the ideal place for Okawa to run a utopian movement which will bring about a new age in the 21st century. Okawa said El Cantare has two roles: a Savior, like Amitabha Buddha, and Mahavairocana, the Buddha's essence which represents enlightenment.

El Cantare is believed to be needed in this world because the world is in a crisis. Dark thoughts exist in the world, which cause disasters, including wars and other conflicts. In Happy Science's doctrine, like attracts like; the cultivation of the Light of Buddha attracts more light, and the cultivation of dark thoughts attracts more dark thoughts. Dark thoughts currently outweigh the Light in the world, creating the need for a Utopia which reverses the situation. This Utopia is to be realized by El Cantare and his followers.

Because Okawa identifies as both the Buddha and El Cantare, Fukui (2004) believes that he fits both types of prophet which sociologist Max Weber believes exist: the exemplary type who leads people to salvation through exemplary living and the emissary type who declares their demands to the world. Okawa plays the exemplary role as the Buddha by embodying the correct way of living and by guiding people to enlightenment. Okawa fulfills the emissary role as El Cantare by providing "hopes of salvation."

Publications

A vast amount of literature has been dedicated to Happy Science's doctrine. Okawa said they all have the purpose of learning Happy Science's fundamental scripture, "The Dharma of the Right Mind" (正心法語, Shōshin Hōgo). Okawa's publications come in three different types. One are the books containing spiritual messages from Okawa's communication with various spirits. The second type are transcriptions of Okawa's lectures and seminar-talks. The third are Okawa's writings. Other authors have contributed as well. Okawa's wife, Kyoko, published books, mainly for the female audience. Some high-ranked disciples have produced titles. Others are published under the name of Happy Science or its Public Relations Department, which include books, magazines, comics, and textbooks.

Okawa is a prolific writer. By the early 1990s, he published about 20 to 30 books per year. He is said to have published over 300 books by 2004.

Many of Okawa's publications became best-sellers. Some of Okawa's books sold over a million copies. Okawa's main book The Laws of the Sun has sold the most copies, with ten million sold by January 2000. Happy Science said that by 1997, over 50 million copies of its titles were sold worldwide.

Unlike traditional religious text, Okawa's writings are very easy to read, with some parts being almost poetic. Okawa does not use old-fashioned, technical or complex language and avoids difficult kanji. He opts for the modern language, even using English loanwords. This simplicity may have helped give his books a popular appeal.

Rivalry with Aum Shinrikyo

Happy Science came into a bitter rivalry with the cult Aum Shinrikyo dating back to 1990, when Happy Science criticized the cult and its leader Shoko Asahara. Okawa called Asahara a frog, referring to Asahara's aquatic yogic acts. In response, Asahara criticized Okawa for not having undergone ascetic training and having a lack of doctrinal knowledge. In 1991, when Happy Science was going through heavy criticism from the public, academic Hiromi Shimada, a critic of Happy Science, appeared to favor Aum Shinrikyo over Happy Science. Shimada favored Asahara because he went through ascetic training and had familiar knowledge of the doctrine of Buddhism. Okawa was criticized for having little knowledge of his own teachings and having faked his spiritual messages. He was challenged to prove his supernatural powers. Asahara published a book mocking Okawa's superficial knowledge of Buddhism. After the book's publication, Happy Science and Aum Shinrikyo were invited to a live television debate, but Okawa declined to participate. The hostility between the two groups culminated in an assassination attempt on Okawa by Aum Shinrikyo in February 1995. Aum members attempted to kill Okawa by putting the nerve agent VX in the air conditioning system of his car. The perpetrators did this by injecting the agent into the car's ventilation system with a needle-less syringe. The attempt failed for unknown reasons.

Happiness Realization Party

In September 2008, Okawa lectured at the New York branch of Happy Science, in which he talked about the political soft power of Happy Science:

Happy Science is the most powerful and famous religion in Japan. I needed only 20 years to accomplish this. I was first asked for advice by Prime Minister Nakasone in 1988. Then we had Prime Minister Miyazawa who was a member of Happy Science, and after that, we produced a lot of Prime Ministers and Ministers. So I became one of the most influential kingmakers of Japan. The Japanese Prime Minister, Mr. Aso, visited Happy Science recently ... I gave him a strategy to become Japan's Prime Minister. He learned a lot and became the Prime Minister and came to New York to give a speech at the Assembly of the United Nations. It was based on just what I told him. So I am one of the kingmakers of Japan. I can choose a Japanese Prime Minister and I can have a Prime Minister quit in a month. It's a hidden secret of Japan ... Happy Science is the most influential power in Japan. So, if the American President cannot realize some diplomatic policy, he can just ask me and I can realize it in a week or so. It's a hidden secret. In Japan, religion has more power than politics.

A few months later, Okawa announced the founding of the Happiness Realization Party (HRP), the political wing of Happy Science. In April 2009, Okawa presented the party's Declaration (幸福実現党宣言, Kōfuku Jitsugentō sengen). On 23 May 2009, the party was formally founded with Jikidō Aeba as party leader. The party was founded in anticipation of the 2009 Japanese general election on 30 August 2009. The party is religious, conservative, and populist. The party does not make direct reference to the religious ideas of Happy Science.

Okawa's wife Kyoko became party leader on 4 June 2009. On 22 July, Okawa was appointed as president of the party. In that year's general election, the party fielded 337 candidates, including 75 women, in 288 out of the 300 constituencies in Japan. This number of candidates was rivaled only by the two major parties at the time, the Democratic Party of Japan and the Liberal Democratic Party. However, the party did not win any seats. It claimed to have just over one million votes, which is 1.4% of all votes cast, despite Happy Science having about ten million members. The party also unsuccessfully ran for the 2009 Sendai mayoral election. Kyoko stepped down as party leader and became head of the party's publicity department on 29 July before resigning from the party on 15 August. Okawa resigned as president on 12 September and a turnover of top party officials occurred.

In May 2010, the party gained its first seat in the House of Councilors when Yasuhiro Oe left the Democratic Party of Japan and joined HRP. On 21 April, Okawa was appointed honorary president of the party. A House of Councilors election was held on July, where no HRP candidates won. In December, Oe left HRP.

On 27 December 2012, Okawa was reappointed as president of the party.

Personal life

In April 1988, Okawa married Kyoko Okawa (大川 きょう子, Ōkawa Kyōko), née Kyoko Kimura (木村 恭子, Kimura Kyōko), born on 22 August 1965. Kyoko had took a role as a spiritual leader alongside Okawa since 1987. Kyoko is a graduate of the University of Tokyo, where she studied English literature. Of his marriage with Kyoko, Okawa said it provided his life "...with a stable basis that enabled me to concentrate even more on my task", and that it was "instrumental in the development of [Happy Science]". Kyoko became the Presidental Assistant of Happy Science in 1988, and the Head of Happy Science's women's group, called the "Society of Aphrodite" (Aphrodite-kai (アフロディーテ会, Afurodiite-kai)). Like her husband, Kyoko has also published books for Happy Science, which mainly targeted the female audience.[49] She also wrote an essay for each issue of Happy Science's monthly journal Happy Science Monthly (月刊 幸福の科学, Gekkan Kōfuku-no-Kagaku), which started in April 1987; she would address topics ranging from education to the family. Her essays were compiled into books. She was the joint president of the Happiness Realization party along with Okawa and later became the leader of the party. Okawa said that he and Kyoko were together in some of their past lives. The Society of Aphrodite and one of its subdivisions, "The Society of Florence" (フローレンスの会, Furōrensu-no-Kai), are named after the Greek goddess and Florence Nightingale respectively because they are believed to be previous incarnations of Kyoko.

In February 2011, it was reported that Okawa and Kyoko had divorced. Happy Science announced that she had been permanently expelled for allegedly causing great personal and administrative damage to the organization, libeling the organization in various newspapers, and besmirching the name of Lord El Cantare.

Okawa and Kyoko had five children: eldest son Hiroshi (宏洋, Hiroshi) (born 24 February 1989), eldest daughter Sayaka (咲也加, Sayaka) (born 16 February 1991), second son Masaki (真輝, Masaki) (born 1993), third son Yuta (裕太, Yūta) (born 1995), and second daughter Arisa (愛理沙, Arisa).

Hiroshi worked for Happy Science after graduating from university. However, he stopped working there because he felt he was not competent enough for the job. He then worked at a construction company for three years before returning to Happy Science in 2016. Since January 2016, he was president of Happy Science's entertainment agency. He was involved in film production and music, working as an actor and a singer. He was intended to be Okawa's successor as leader of Happy Science. In October 2018, he declared that he broke up with Happy Science on his personal YouTube channel. In an interview with Shūkan Bunshun on 28 February 2019, he said the reason is because at the end of January 2017, he felt pressured by his father to marry the actress Fumika Shimizu, who became a member of Happy Science in February. On 18 November, when he refused the marriage, his father became furious, and after that day, Hiroshi left Happy Science. Happy Science has denied the accusation of Okawa pressuring Hiroshi to marry Fumika, saying that it was Hiroshi himself who was interested in marrying her. He has since renounced his father, stating "I believe what my father does is complete nonsense." He said that from an early age, he was taught that his father is a god. However, Hiroshi said he never thought of Okawa as a god and that he never wanted to follow in his father's footsteps nor has he ever wanted to do religious work.

Sayaka is said to be the managing director and general manager of Happy Science. In September 2015, she married Naoki Okawa (大川 直樹, Ōkawa Naoki), a member of the board of Happy Science. Happy Science has said that Sayaka would be the heir to the organization's leadership instead of Hiroshi. Masaki has been said to work for Happy Science since he was a student at university. He is serving as managing director and secretary general of science at Happy Science. In July 2016, he married Mizuho Okawa (大川 瑞保, Ōkawa Mizuho), née Mizuho Sato (佐藤 瑞保, Satō Mizuho), who serves as the chief of the president's office at Happy Science. Yuta works as director of Happy Science, general manager of the governor's office and staff officer for the promotion of the headquarters' government affairs. He has also published books for Happy Science.

In December 2012, Okawa married Shio Okawa (大川 紫央, Ōkawa Shio), née Shio Kondo (近藤 紫央, Kondō Shio), born in 1985. She is believed by members of Happy Science to be the incarnation of the goddess Gaia.

Okawa had an aunt named Shizuko Nakagawa (中川 静子, Nakagawa Shizuko) (1919 – 1994). She was a novelist. In 2012, Okawa delivered a Happy Science sermon about her in which Shizuko's spirit was speaking through Okawa.

 

Rev. Jim Jones and the People's Temple on TPKs Stories

https://anchor.fm/valerie-harvey/episodes/Rev--Jim-Jones-and-the-Peoples-Temple-Part-I-e1sm6s9

 

  https://anchor.fm/valerie-harvey/episodes/Rev--Jim-Jones-and-the-Peoples-Temple-Part-II-e1sv9pk

 

Josh Duggar

Joshua James Duggar (born March 3, 1988) is an American convicted sex offender and former reality television personality from the TLC series 19 Kids and Counting. The eldest of Michelle and Jim Bob Duggar's nineteen children, Duggar was the executive director of FRC Action, a lobbying political action committee sponsored by the Family Research Council, from June 2013 to May 2015. He left this position when news broke that he had molested multiple underage girls, including a victim under five years old, when he was aged 14–15.

These revelations led to the cancellation of 19 Kids and Counting on July 16, 2015. Duggar's publicity woes were named one of the "10 Big Scandals of 2015" by USA Today, and The Washington Post listed Duggar as one of the fifteen most hated people on the Internet for that year.

On April 29, 2021, Duggar was arrested by U.S. Marshals on charges of receiving and possessing child pornography. He was found guilty on all charges on December 9, 2021. He was sentenced to over 12 years in prison on May 25, 2022.

Early life

Josh Duggar was born on March 3, 1988, in the city of Tontitown in Washington County, Arkansas, to James Robert and Michelle Annette Ruark Duggar. Duggar was homeschooled and passed Arkansas's state test for a general equivalency diploma at the age of 16. He did not attend college.

Career

Reality television personality

Starting in 2005, Duggar appeared on a number of reality television shows about his family, beginning with a program on Discovery Health when he was aged 17. The most prominent of these programs was the TLC series 19 Kids and Counting, which debuted in September 2008. Duggar's wedding was featured in an episode broadcast on January 25, 2009, which included the planning, preparation, rehearsal, ceremony and reception. Duggar and his wife have stated they saved their first kiss for their wedding day.

Multiple episodes document Duggar's children, including: "GrandDuggar's First Birthday", airing December 7, 2010, where Duggar celebrates his daughter Mackynzie's first birthday and announces the expected birth of their second child; "First Grandson", airing June 19, 2011, which featured Duggar and his wife introducing their second child, Michael James; and "GrandDuggar Makes 3!", airing June 16, 2013, a Father's Day special introducing the Duggars' third baby, Marcus Anthony. A special titled "Josh & Anna: Our Story" aired on October 22, 2013, reviewed the couple's first five years of marriage. Duggar and his wife announced the expected birth of their fourth child on an episode titled "Anna's Having A...", which aired May 12, 2015. The episode included the Duggars announcing the ultrasound showed they were having another girl.

Political activity

When Duggar was a teenager, his father, Jim Bob Duggar, was a two-term Republican member of the Arkansas House of Representatives. Duggar has also been active in conservative politics; while running a car dealership he worked as a part-time political consultant in 2007 under the business name Strategic Political Services. In 2008, he worked on the Republican presidential primary campaign of former Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee. In 2012, Duggar addressed rallies for the Republican presidential candidate Rick Santorum of Pennsylvania.

From June 2013 to May 2015, he was executive director of FRC Action, a political action and lobbying organization sponsored by the Family Research Council. When describing his position with the organization, he stated that he would be focused on "engaging the grassroots and taking the message of faith, family and freedom all across America". FRC president Tony Perkins said that by hiring Duggar they hoped to appeal to more young people by tapping into the popularity of 19 Kids and Counting. He further stated, "The big part of Josh's focus is going to be building our grass-roots across the country". While working at FRC Action, conservative Republican candidates valued Duggar as a way to advance their messages to his constituents. He campaigned for Senate candidates in Kansas, Mississippi, and Virginia before the 2014 midterm elections.

Duggar described his family as the "epitome of conservative values" and advocated for what he termed "family-centered" and conservative Christian viewpoints, including opposition to abortion, divorce, and gay marriage. He has been referred to as an "anti-gay activist" by GLAAD, a pro-LGBT rights organization.

Molestation charges

2006

In 2004 and 2006, the first four television specials featuring the Duggar family were released. In December 2006, the family was scheduled to appear on The Oprah Winfrey Show. At this time, an anonymous source emailed Oprah Winfrey's production company, Harpo Studios, and called the Arkansas Child Abuse Hotline to reveal Duggar's past sexual misconduct toward minors. Winfrey's producers alerted the Department of Human Services and canceled the Duggar family's appearance on the show.

As a result of these reports, an investigation by Springdale police was launched. Investigators spoke to Duggar's parents and several other family members, with the family describing the sexual misconduct that occurred in 2002 and 2003. The family reported that no further incidents had occurred since Duggar returned to the home in late 2003. Family members interviewed by police said that they felt safe in their home and had forgiven Duggar for his past behavior.

Under Arkansas state law, child sexual abuse charges must be filed within three years of being reported to a police officer to be within the statute of limitations. In July 2003, Duggar's father had taken him to meet Joseph Truman Hutchens, an Arkansas State Trooper and family acquaintance. Because of this contact, the statute had started at that time and had run out by the time of the 2006 investigation. As a result, no charges could be filed. Hutchens was himself convicted in 2012 of child sexual abuse.

2015

On May 21, 2015, a report by the magazine In Touch Weekly stated that Jim Bob Duggar had told the Arkansas State Police that Josh had molested five underage girls between 2002 and 2003, when he was 14 and 15 years old. According to a redacted police report obtained via a Freedom of Information Act request, four of the five molestation victims were Duggar's siblings. Jim Bob reported he had learned in March 2002 that Josh had touched the breasts and genital region of his sisters on multiple occasions while they were sleeping. Both parents stated that they were made aware of the incidents when he confessed and that the girls were initially unaware the abuse had occurred. Jim Bob stated that Josh was disciplined at home. In March 2003, Duggar's parents learned of additional incidents and victims, which included the touching of a babysitter, reaching under the dress of a younger sister who was in his lap, and cornering a sister in the laundry room to reach under her clothing. The Duggars had also been told the abuse included a much younger sister, who, according to the Duggars, "didn't understand she had been improperly touched". At this time, Duggar's father brought the issue to the elders of their church.

Jim Bob informed police that he had enrolled Josh in a program consisting of counseling and physical labor after consulting with his church's leadership. Michelle stated he was sent away from home for a period of three months to work for a family friend who was remodeling a building. Later reports suggest that Josh may have been sent to a facility in Little Rock owned by the Institute in Basic Life Principles (IBLP), a Christian ministry and training program founded by Bill Gothard, a Duggar family friend. It has not been established that the IBLP center in Little Rock was open for counseling during the time Josh was there, if the building was renovated during this time period, or he was assisting with any such renovation.

When Josh returned home in July 2003, his father took him to meet Joseph Truman Hutchens, an Arkansas State Trooper and family acquaintance. According to Josh and his parents, the meeting was the first time any law enforcement authority was made aware of the abuse. According to Jim Bob, Josh admitted to Hutchens that he had committed molestation and apologized. Speaking via a lawyer, Hutchens disputed part of the account, saying he was only told of a single act of incestuous molestation and that he would have responded differently if he had known of additional instances and victims. In an interview following this statement, Jim Bob claimed Hutchens was told the entire story. Hutchens did not take any official action but reportedly gave Josh a "stern talk". Under Arkansas state law, law enforcement officers, as mandated reporters, are required to alert the Arkansas Child Abuse Hotline when learning of sexual abuse. Hutchens was later arrested and convicted on unrelated charges of child pornography and is currently serving a 56-year prison sentence.

Though Josh Duggar's misconduct was largely unknown to the public before 2015, a blogger writing in 2007 and identified only as "Alice" referred to the canceled Oprah Winfrey Show appearance and stated that staff for the program had been told he was a "child molester". The allegation circulated online for years but was not publicly corroborated until the In Touch article revealed the police report. Immediately after the article was published, an unidentified victim who was reportedly still a minor requested that any remaining products of the investigation be destroyed. State judge Stacey Zimmerman granted this request to protect the unidentified victim's privacy.

Duggar resigned his position at FRC Action on May 21, 2015, on the same day the In Touch article was published. He stated that he "acted inexcusably" as a teen and said he was "deeply sorry" for what he called his wrongdoings. In response to his resignation, FRC president Tony Perkins stated, "Josh believes that the situation will make it difficult for him to be effective in his current work. We believe this is the best decision for Josh and his family at this time. We will be praying for everyone involved."

In Touch reported in a June 3, 2015, article that another police report obtained by the magazine revealed that Josh had confessed to his father, on three separate occasions, to committing child molestation, which had involved a much younger sister and seven incidents. The article also noted that the family waited at least sixteen months before reporting the abuse to authorities.

Testimony from both Jim and Bobye Holt revealed that the sexual abuse inside the Duggar family home was far more extensive than Jim Bob and Michelle Duggar claimed during their 2015 interview with Megyn Kelly. The Holts revealed that the incidents were widespread and that Josh had touched his siblings inappropriately multiple times. Jim Bob and Michelle once claimed Josh’s victims were initially unaware anything had happened to them. The Holts revealed that Jim Bob and Michelle’s past statements were untrue. They testified that at least one of the victims reported an incident.

Debate over release of police reports

The Arkansas Freedom of Information Act states that the records of a juvenile "shall remain confidential" and "shall not be subject to disclosure under the FOI". Arkansas State Senator Bart Hester called for Springdale Police Chief Kathy O'Kelley to be fired, saying that she had re-victimized Duggar's victims by releasing his records. Springdale city attorney Ernest Cate defended the release of the records, saying that while Duggar was a minor at the time of the alleged incidents, he was 18 in December 2006 when the police report was filed. He added that under these circumstances, the records could be released once minors' names, as well as any potentially identifying pronouns, were redacted. Zimmerman ordered all copies of the report destroyed on May 21, 2015.

On June 5, 2015, Duggar's sisters Jessa and Jill gave an interview to Megyn Kelly on Fox News, discussing the abuse and the reports' release. Jessa called Duggar's actions as a teen "very wrong" and stated, "I do want to speak up in his defense against people who are calling him a child molester or a pedophile or a rapist, as some people are saying ... [T]hat is so overboard and a lie really ... I mean, people get mad at me for saying that, but I can say this because I was one of the victims." She further stated that "the system was set up to protect kids ... it's greatly failed", and that the week preceding the interview had been "a thousand times worse for us" than the sexual abuse. Jill called the release of the police reports "a revictimization".

Admissions following Ashley Madison breach

On August 20, 2015, following the online posting of information from the Ashley Madison data breach, which included records of credit card transactions under his name, Duggar and his parents released a statement on the family website in which he admitted to watching pornography on the Internet and being unfaithful to his wife. According to the material obtained in the data breach, Duggar's credit card was used to pay $986.76 for two Ashley Madison subscriptions starting in February 2013, which were cancelled in May 2015 shortly after the molestation allegations surfaced.

The statement contained the following: "I have been the biggest hypocrite ever. While espousing faith and family values, I have secretly over the last several years been viewing pornography on the Internet and this became a secret addiction and I became unfaithful to my wife" ... "the last few years, while publicly stating I was fighting against immorality in our country I was hiding my own personal failures". The reference to pornography was later removed from the website.

On August 25, 2015, Duggar checked himself into a rehabilitation facility that his family described as a "long-term treatment center". The facility was later confirmed in media reports as Reformers Unanimous, which describes itself as "a learning atmosphere where the addicted can be disciplined in an environment that is much like a greenhouse".

Sexual assault allegations

In November 2015, pornographic actress Danica Dillon filed suit against Duggar, claiming he had "assaulted her to the point of causing her physical and emotional injuries" during an episode of consensual sex at a Philadelphia strip club earlier in the year. According to Dillon, the incident occurred after she had provided $600 worth of lap dances to Duggar. Dillon was seeking $500,000 in damages from him. In February 2016, Dillon chose to drop the lawsuit.

2021 arrest, trial, and conviction

On April 29, 2021, U.S. Marshals arrested Duggar on federal charges of receiving and possessing child pornography. Prosecutors allege that Duggar obtained the images in May 2019 and it was acknowledged that a federal investigation by the office of the U.S. Attorney for the Western District of Arkansas had been previously recommended after Duggar's used car dealership Wholesale Motorcars was searched by U.S. Homeland Security agents in November 2019 as a part of an initiative launched by the U.S. Department of Justice to protect children from sexual abuse and exploitation. The federal grand jury's indictment accuses Duggar of having "knowingly" received pornographic images of children who were under 12 years old. Following his arrest, Duggar was booked into the Washington County Jail. On April 30, 2021, Duggar pleaded not guilty to one count each of charges of receiving and possessing child pornography, with his attorneys indicating that he would "fight back in the courtroom" against the charges.

U.S. Chief Magistrate Judge Erin L. Wiedemann said that, if Duggar were to be awarded bail, he would have to be "in a residence where there's no minor in the home". At that time, Duggar's six children were under the age of 11, and his wife Anna was pregnant with a seventh child. The seventh child was born in October 2021. Duggar was granted conditional bail at a bond hearing on May 5, and he was released from jail and transferred into the custody of a third-party custodian. As part of the conditions for his bail, Duggar was permitted to have contact with his children only in the presence of his wife. He was required to wear an ankle monitor, have a probation officer's permission to leave the third-party custodians' home, could not access the internet, and could not be inside a residence where firearms were stored.

Gerald Faulkner, a special agent for Homeland Security Investigations, stated the files on the computer were "in the top five of the worst of the worst that I've ever had to examine". One of the videos allegedly in Duggar's possession, created by Peter Scully, depicts the rape and torture of an 18-month-old toddler.

Trial

Duggar's trial date, originally set for July 6, was rescheduled for November 30, 2021. He did not meet an October deadline to accept a plea deal.

As of October 2021, Duggar's lawyers attempted to use procedural nuisances to get the case against him dismissed. The judge described the action of the lawyers as "frivolous". Further attempts by Duggar's lawyers to suppress evidence against him similarly were denied by a judge. The prosecution wanted to bring up sexual assault accusations made against Duggar when he was a young teenager; the defense alleged these charges were irrelevant and could prejudice a jury. A pretrial hearing was held on November 18, at which the judge demanded an evidentiary hearing. The evidentiary hearing was held on November 29 in a Fayetteville court to determine if Duggar's father Jim Bob Duggar and family friend Bobye Holt could testify as prosecution witnesses during his trial. During this three-hour hearing, both took the stand, with Holt testifying that Josh Duggar had fondled four younger girls since the age of 12.

The trial began on November 30 with jury selection. The same day, Duggar's lawyer filed a motion urging the presiding judge to dismiss "any further testimony" from Holt. On December 1, 2021, opening statements took place after trial judge Timothy L. Brooks denied the bid from Duggar's defense counsel to have past abuse allegations dismissed as trial evidence. The same day, Detective Amber Kalmer of the Little Rock Police Department became the first witness of the trial to testify. On December 3, an official from the Department of Justice testified that the hard drive in Duggar's computer had been partitioned into two sections: one which had Windows installed that he used mainly for business, and the second with Linux installed, which he used to download, access and share child pornography. The accountability software Covenant Eyes had been installed on the Windows side and was set to alert Duggar's spouse when pornography was viewed, but the software could not detect what was accessed while the computer was using Linux. Husband and wife Jim and Bobye Holt were called as a witnesses for the prosecution. Jim Holt testified that Josh Duggar had asked him how to create the Linux partition on a computer in 2010, while Bobye Holt reiterated the same information that she testified on November 29.

On December 9, 2021, a jury found Duggar guilty of receiving and possessing child pornography.

Sentence

On May 25, 2022, Duggar was sentenced to 12 years and 7 months in prison. His earliest possible release is August 22, 2032. This will be followed by 20 years of supervised release, during which he must register as a sex offender and can have no unsupervised contact with minors, including his own children. He can only access the Internet with the permission of his probation officer, and must agree to monitoring of his online activity. He was fined $10,000 and ordered to pay an additional $40,100 in special assessments.

He had faced up to 20 years in federal prison and a fine of up to $250,000 for each of the two counts.

Aftermath

Multiple Duggar family members and their spouses issued statements following Duggar's conviction. Some celebrated that justice was served and offered prayers for Duggar and his family. On May 17, 2022, Duggar's cousin, Amy King, posted an open letter to Anna Duggar, telling her "there is no shame in divorcing Josh."

A day after Duggar's conviction, news of his sister Jana's child endangerment charge from September 2021 was published. On December 14, 2021, five days after Josh's conviction, Jim Bob Duggar's bid to represent District 7 of the Arkansas State Senate was unsuccessful, finishing third in the Republican primary.

On January 20, 2022, Josh Duggar's legal team filed for acquittal, arguing that the evidence presented at trial did not support conviction. On May 24, 2022, the federal district court denied Duggar's motion for judgment of acquittal. On June 3, 2022, Duggar appealed his conviction to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit, which appeal remains pending.

Personal life

On September 26, 2008, Duggar and Anna Renée Keller, both aged 20, were married at the Buford Grove Baptist Church in Hilliard, Florida. They have seven children: daughter Mackynzie Renée (b. October 2009), sons Michael James (b. June 2011) and Marcus Anthony (b. June 2013), daughter Meredith Grace (b. July 2015), son Mason Garett (b. September 2017), and daughters Maryella Hope (b. November 2019) and Madyson Lily (b. November 2021). His four younger children will still be minors at the time that he is expected to be released from prison. Any visits with his minor children would have to be supervised.